Tintern Abbey, Cadw, Historical Landmark, National Icon

This blog commences a change in writing style, which I hope you approve. The emphasis up until now has been on facts that have been discovered/learnt on each visit. While this part of the format is retained the visit to Tintern Abbey has highlighted a new area of knowledge.

It is not so much dates against events but the ability of the site to stir the emotions. Coupled with this is the discovery (I am not that well-read) of another era in man’s history. I learned about the renaissance in Italy and Florence and its connection and influence upon the art that I saw there. Of course, the renaissance was not confined to Italy. It became a way of life throughout Europe and almost governed the thinking of the day.

At Tintern Abbey I found out that visits made to the Wye Valley in the late 18^th century was the start of British tourism. This led to famous people like Wordsworth and JMW Turner visiting and expressing their thoughts and feelings about the place in either poetry or art. These men, along with others throughout Europe, led the period of man’s history known as romanticism.

This blog will lift the facts about Tintern but also draw on the poetic language, much of which I do not understand, that was used to describe the place. Questions will be asked; it may well be that my language becomes quite flowery. Let’s see…

Iconic Tintern Abbey

Tintern Abbey is a ‘national icon’ situated on the banks of the River Wye in Monmouthshire. It was once a Gothic masterpiece. At the time of the dissolution of the monasteries nearly 500 years ago, the abbey was destroyed, and it became a set of ruins. 200 years ago, however, dare I put it this way, romance filled the air.

Artists and poets alike composed masterpieces of the iconic Tintern abbey. Read on as I explore the site, understand its history and admire the architecture of the abbey whilst learning about the ‘beautiful, ‘picturesque’ (was this a new word in the English language back then) and the ‘sublime’.

Tintern Abbey Location

Tintern Abbey is perched on the western banks of the river Wye. Its location was first chosen for its detachment and remoteness which aligned with the strict behaviour expected of Cistercian monks.

The river Wye meanders its way through the valley and is the 4^th largest river in Britain. It runs from its source in Mid-Wales, and acts as the border between England and Wales for about 45 miles before it meets the River Severn.

Tintern Abbey’s prosperity grew under the marcher lords at the nearby towns like Monmouth to the North (11miles), Chepstow to the south (7miles), Usk to the west (15miles) and Raglan northwest (14miles).

Tintern Abbey Architecture

The traditional cruciform plan of the church is evident. The impressive nave, transepts and presbytery are clearly seen from differing angles although not all accessible.

Entrance to the site is made through the main kiosk which leads out to the monks’ living quarters which are to the north of the abbey. There are ruins of the day room, warming house, refectory, kitchen and parlour. Most of all that remains of these is at foundation level. A lot of imagination is needed to visualise its former glories!!

Between these buildings and the northern side of the nave was the cloister.

Entry into the abbey itself is through the western end of the nave. The towering gable end shows its sheer size, and particularly, of its nave. The central nave had additional northern and southern aisles at a much lower height than the central nave. The western window towers above the doors and leads to a smaller window above.

The nave consisted of 6 bays. To the northern side remains much of the external northern aisle wall but not much of the northern nave wall. On the south side the pillars and Gothic arches remain with windows above them which are part of the nave wall. The roof over the southern aisle seems to have been repaired and replaced.

The crossing towers straight up and is connected to the nave, transepts and presbytery. Sadly, this is all that can be seen from afar as metal barriers and scaffolding restrict access and views. There is no sign of any of the graves that might have been in the chapel. I am informed that these would have been destroyed during the suppression of the abbey. The tall and elegant windows remain in each of the outer ends of the transepts and presbytery.

The arches of the Nave on the southern side

Cistercian Order

This was founded in France in 1098 and born out of frustration at the lack of monastic observance in the Benedictine monastic community. The name ‘Cistercian’ comes from Citeaux (Latin, Cistercium) which was the mother abbey in Burgundy, France. The Cistercian Order follows a stricter observance of the rule of St Benedict. It is commonly associated with the wearing of white.

The Cistercian order is part of the Roman Catholic church that flourished in England in the medieval ages. The first Cistercian abbey established in Britain was in 1128 at Waverley (Surrey) with the second to be established here in Tintern. The founding of Rievaulx Abbey in Yorkshire marked the beginning of the development of the Cistercian religious movement in Britain. To delve deeper into the Cistercian order a trip to Yorkshire might prove to be necessary. The county was the heart of the Cistercian community in Britain with several abbeys close by.

The Cistercian monasteries fell from grace and favour when Henry VIII left the Roman Catholic church. The pope did not grant him a divorce and this led to the dissolution of monasteries. This in turn boosted the monarchy’s coffers.

Without realizing, I have already visited a Cistercian abbey and written about it when I first embarked on this learning journey many years ago (Forde Abbey in Dorset). I may have to revisit and stump up the money to visit the inside this time though.

Tintern Abbey History

Founding of Tintern Abbey

Tintern Abbey was founded in 1131 by Walter de Clare. The powerful ‘de Clare’ family name was discovered on a recent trip to Usk Castle. I’m not sure of the links between Walter (Chepstow) and Richard (Usk) de Clare. The early founding of the abbey consisted mainly of timber buildings, the same as the early motte and bailey castles would have been.

Kingswood Abbey

By 1139 the community was thriving, and the overcrowded Tintern was able to colonize a first daughter house in Kingswood in Gloucester. Roger de Berkeley, Baron of Berkeley and owner of Berkeley Castle acquired the land in Gloucester. Barely anything remains of the abbey in Kingswood save for an Abbey Gatehouse. This abbey is part of English Heritage is free to visit if ever you’re passing by.

Tintern Parva

In 1189 William Marshal (discovered at Usk castle) became Lord of Chepstow, through his marriage to Isabel de Clare (Isabel and her two sons are buried at Tintern Abbey) and became a patron of Tintern Abbey. William authorized the second and final daughter house of Tintern Abbey on his lands in Ireland and called it Tintern Parva (little Tintern). He had made a promise to God during a stormy sea trip to Ireland that if he remained safe, he would establish an abbey. Ruins remain here and look worthy of a visit if I can make it back to Ireland. The abbey ruins in Wexford Ireland are part of Heritage Ireland.

Roger Bigod III

In 1245 the Lordship of Chepstow passed to the Bigod family. Roger Bigod III took a keen interest in Tintern Abbey. Roger became the Duke of Norfolk in 1270 and continued until 1306. At the turn of the 14^th century he granted the abbey a valuable asset, his Norfolk manor of Acle. Roger is the man who helped to build the church we admire today. Works began in 1269 and were completed in 1301. Such was his impact on the abbey that when the dissolution of the monasteries came the monks were still distributing alms to the poor 5 times a year in repose for Roger’s soul.

Royal Visitor to Tintern Abbey

Tintern Abbey had a royal visitor in 1326 when Edward II took refuge at the house when fleeing Roger Mortimer’s army. He spent two days at Tintern Abbey.

William Herbert

In 1469 William Herbert (1^st Earl of Pembroke, known as Black William) was beheaded after the battle of Edgecote and buried at Tintern. The Herbert family was discovered in detail at St Mary’s Priory, Abergavenny (his father and mother are buried there, along with his brother who was beheaded with him).

Dissolution of the Monasteries

The destruction of the monasteries began in Henry VIII’s reign. As previously learned, this was done in two acts, the first in 1536 and the second in 1539. The monasteries owned about a quarter of the land in England.

Henry acquired a lot of wealth by removing them. Tintern Abbey fell peacefully in the first Act of Supremacy. The abbeys in northern England revolted which led to the ‘Pilgrimage of Grace’ in October 1536. In this first act small monasteries and abbeys with an income of less than £200 were closed and their buildings, lands, and money taken by the crown.

The larger abbeys and monasteries fell in the second act of suppression in 1539. Tintern Abbey was sold to Henry Somerset, the then current Earl of Worcester. Henry would go on to strip the monastery of its valuable resources. Tintern Abbey, like many other abbeys, fell into ruin.

Romantic Tintern Abbey

Tintern Abbey’s fate was to take a turn for the better in the 18^th century. A popular engraving in 1732 by the Busk brothers started it all off. Reverend William Gilpin’s best-selling account of ‘Wye River Voyage in 1770’ described Tintern as ‘the most beautiful’ scene of all and people were hooked. Whether or not his description was accurate is a matter for debate (there is a comments box at the bottom of this blog – I would love to hear your thoughts on all matters raised in this blog as well as all others).

Gilpin was a notable travel writer, an artist, a church of England cleric and a schoolmaster. He is famous for being one of the first promoters of the term ‘picturesque’. William also wrote ‘Observations on the River Wye’, which was first published in 1782. He evidently felt that the River Wye was the place to visit.

It could be argued that the early Romantics were revolutionary but the observation of events in France (the Reign of Terror) resulted in a shift towards the power of nature and the importance of the imagination. The French Revolution and Napoleonic War kept travelers out of Europe and adventurers wanted to explore the wild landscapes of Britain. The ivy-covered ruins of Tintern were to provide inspiration for poets searching for the ‘sublime’ and ‘picturesque’. This brought a flock of people to the area and as a result, British tourism commenced. The guidebook had come to stay!!

JMW Turner painting of Tintern Abbey in 1794

J.M.W Turner was a romantic landscape painter. Renowned for his oils, he became one of the greatest masters of British watercolour landscape painting. His work is now in galleries all over the world. The painting relating to Tintern is now housed in the Tate Modern in London and I must see it for myself. The painting in question shows the crossing of the abbey looking towards the East Window. He beautifully captures the elegant glamorous ruins of Tintern Abbey complete with its ivy.

William Wordsworth's famous poem (1798)

William was an English romantic poet. Along with Samuel Taylor Coleridge (he was born in Ottery St Mary in Devon, and I must go to see the superb church there and the graveyard for its Coleridge connections) they launched the Romantic Age in English literature. They wrote a book together called ‘Lyrical Ballads’ which a collection of their poems. William included his poem associated with Tintern. William revisited Tintern Abbey 5 years after his first visit and famously composed ‘Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey’. He describes the gentle sounds of the rivers and streams running down the ‘steep and lofty cliffs’.

Tintern Abbey conclusions

There was once a seductive allure to these mystical ruins. It was once a place of seclusion, detached from life and home to those who followed a strict devotion. Those monastic times seem a long time ago. They were a long time back and were ended abruptly. The church which provided a sanctuary was left to become a heap of ruins.

As if by poetic justice, the Romantic era, coupled with the input of a devotee to the Wye valley itself, gave the ruins a new meaning and a new beginning. People were stirred to visit these towering and overgrown ruins. The ivy crawling around pillars of stone with the sun or moonlight beaming through vacant arches, open windows and a roofless building as captured by the artist became inspiring.

My reaction on Tintern Abbey

Sadly, these romantic ruins that provided so much inspiration didn’t and don’t have the same allure for me. Yes, they’re incredible to witness. It is nice to see its roofless splendour and the towering size of a once monastic masterpiece. Imagination is also needed above ground level. Ugly scaffolding sticks to the building like a forgotten plaster. The rest of the site is a sterile theatre, a doldrum of corporate preservation and presentation.

The noisy sounds of cars passing by drown out those gentle sounds of rivers and streams, though, to be fair, Wordsworth wouldn’t have been troubled by motor cars. To be fair to myself, Wordsworth hardly described the abbey but the river by which it is located. The poem seems to eulogise the power of nature to restore and has nothing to say about something man-made like the abbey.

He seems to delight in nature itself, and one wonders whether he could have been having the same thoughts as he did in another place with his dancing daffodils. To me the people at the turn of the 18^th to 19^th centuries led much less sophisticated lives than modern man and, evidently, were inspired.

Perhaps the current works will enhance the site – they will do nothing to curb the engine noise.

Listen to me going all Wordsworth and yet describing the antithesis of the romance of the place. Am I being too controversial? Does Tintern Abbey deserve this level of controversy?

I’m intrigued to know your opinions. If you have been please let me know your thoughts. Were you romantically inspired? In a fast-changing world did you feel the urge to get your easel out? Or jot down a few words of poetry. Do you find the place pleasing on the eye?

If you haven’t been, have I inspired you to go? Has Gilpin, Turner or Wordsworth? Leave your thoughts in the comments below….

September 28, 2025September 29, 2025

St Mary’s Priory, Anglican church in Abergavenny, Wales

St Mary’s Priory is a historic church at the eastern end of the market town of Abergavenny. The church is known as ‘the Westminster Abbey of Wales’. The church is home to many treasures which include a collection of beautiful tombs and monuments, a medieval font, and several impressive stained-glass windows. But its greatest treasure is an incredible 15^th century carving of Jesse, father of king David in the Bible, as the base of a much larger work known as the Jesse tree.

This guide provides details on what to see, the layout and architecture of St Mary’s Priory church, its history, links with Abergavenny Castle and a look at some of the names of those buried in the church.

St Mary’s Priory Layout

St Mary’s Priory is mainly a Victorian refurbishment. Sadly, very little, if any, of the Norman church remains. St Mary’s Priory is a traditional cruciform layout plan, although this is hard to see when first walking in. Entrance is made into the centre of nave.

The nave is impressively large but confuses me slightly. To the northern side there is clear evidence of the bays that are normally seen in churches and cathedrals. The northern aisle is similar in shape and design to that of nave. To the south is a fixed wall, external looking, with windows offering much light into the church. It appears that maybe the southern aisle was forgotten in the rebuilding process. The contrast of north and south sides of the nave is stark.

At the crossing is a nave altar with a central tower above. The transepts to the north and south are clearly visible and lead to separate chapels – Lewis chapel to the north and Herbert chapel to the south. In the northern transept is a Wooden effigy of Sir John de Hastings II.

The choir is sandwiched between these two chapels (Lewis and Herbert) with the sanctuary being at the far eastern end of the church. In the choir are finally carved monastic stalls from the 15^th century.

The Lewis chapel is named after Dr David Lewis who was the first principal of Jesus College, Oxford. Dr David became a judge of the High court of the Admiralty in the reign of Elizabeth 1^st. The Herbert Chapel is named after a couple of gentlemen who are buried there.

History of St Mary’s Priory

St Mary’s Priory founding

A Benedictine Priory and church of St. Mary was founded towards the end of the 11^th century by the first Anglo-Norman Lord of Abergavenny Hamelin de Ballon. Hamelin was granted the Lordship of Abergavenny by William II and was the man who built Abergavenny Castle.

St Mary’s Priory was attached as a ‘cell’ to the Abbey of St Vincent near Le Mans in Normandy. This is like the recently visited St George’s Priory Church in Dunster, which was a cell of Bath Abbey. I presume the link with Le Mans is due to Hamelin being a Norman knight who was born in Ballon, near to Le Mans, in France.

A ‘Priory’

As my learning flourishes it is important I find out what a priory is. A priory is a religious community built to house monks or nuns. In Abergavenny’s case monks lived in a monastic order and followed the rule of Saint Benedict. A priory church was built within their community to allow prayer and worship. This would have been separated from towns people who would have had their own church. Priories could have been independent or a cell of an abbey.

Medieval St Mary’s Priory

St Mary’s Priory went through good and bad times. Being so far away from its master abbey I’m sure this led to some of these problems. Rumours, many substantiated, of ill-discipline, drinking, gambling and adultery by the monks and prior had left the priory neglected. When the then current Lord of Abergavenny (John de Hastings) discovered these misdemeanours, reformations were made, with notably more lands passing to the priory.

When Owain Glyndwr destroyed Abergavenny, so too was St Mary’s Priory. Rebuilding took place after the Pope gave a grant of indulgence for church repairs in 1428. The people of Abergavenny also raised money to help with the repairs. This led to the priory enjoying a period of great prosperity. A tithe barn was built to collect annual tithes from people working on the priory’s lands.

Dissolution of the Monasteries

When Henry VIII’s divorce from the Roman Catholic church took place, the effects were felt across the land. St Mary’s Priory being part of the Catholic order was no exception. By now, though the local community influence was great, they were already using the church (sharing with the remaining monks) as they had outgrown their church (St. Johns on the other side of town).

A settlement was made through the Lord of Abergavenny with Henry VIII that St Mary’s Priory church would become the town’s parish church. Then with some of the revenues from the priory a school would be established in their old parish church.

English Civil War

Not only did St Mary’s Priory survive the reformation, but it navigated its way through the Civil War as well. A visit to Abergavenny Castle showed how Abergavenny played a role in the Civil War as King Charles I tried to raise an army before Cromwell and his army garrisoned the castle. Cromwell and his troops vandalised much of the country, pursuing the Puritan way but somehow the ‘Jesse’ carving avoided Cromwell’s ravages.

St Mary’s Priory in the 19th century

During the Victorian period St Mary’s Priory changed severely as the nave and northern aisle were demolished and rebuilt. The Victorian refurbishment program, sadly, leaves little traces of the original Norman architecture. They did, however, find the Norman baptismal font in the churchyard.

Treasures of St Mary's Priory

Jesse

The greatest of the St Mary’s Priory treasures is now housed in the Lewis Chapel. Dating back to the 15^th century is a unique representation of Jesse. This piece was carved from a solid piece of oak and makes it unique. It is part of a reredos (an altarpiece) that would have stood 20-30 feet high with carvings of the exalted Christ and the Virgin Mary at its apex. ‘Jesses’ were normally displayed in stone and stain glass. Behind its current location is the ‘Jesse Window’. Created by Helen Whittaker of Barley Studios in York, it encapsulates the various themes and messages from the bible.

Eva de Braose

The oldest monument in St Mary’s Priory Church belongs to Eva de Braose. She died in 1256 and was part of the infamous de Braose family that had such gruesome history with Abergavenny Castle. If you look closely at her monument the shield that she is holding is decorated in the Cantilupe (the family she married into) fleur-de-lis (lily flower). You will find her monument in the chancel area.

Sir Lawrence de Hastings (d.1348)

The Hastings dynasty rebuilt much of Abergavenny castle and the last member of the family to be buried here is Sir Lawrence de Hastings. Sir Lawrence fought at the battle of Crecy (1346) and Sluys (1340) in the 100 years’ war. Sir Lawrence’s son John married Margaret Plantagenet, daughter of King Edward I.

Sir John de Hastings II (d.1324)

Sir John’s wooden effigy is in the northern transept. John’s effigy has been beautifully carved and shows him praying with his feet on a lion. John was heavily involved in rebuilding of St Mary’s Priory in 14^th century.

Sir Richard Herbert (d.1469) of Coldbrook & Margaret

Sir Richard was the owner of Coldbrook Estate, Llanover, Monmouthshire. A short drive south of Abergavenny, the estate remains but the house is no more. Sir Richard was the second son of William ap Thomas (William brought and greatly expanded Raglan Castle) who is also buried in St Mary’s Priory. Richard Herbert and his brother were heavily involved in the Wars of Roses and after losing the battle of Edgcote (24^th July 1469) were beheaded. Edgcote is in West Northamptonshire, and the battle took place between the earls of Pembroke and Devon loyal to the crown and a rebel force led by the Earl of Warwick.

William ap Thomas and the Lady Gwladys

William fought in the battle of Agincourt (1415); his exploits led to his knighthood. This brought about much wealth and power. He purchased the norman Raglan Castle and along with his son William Herbert (William took the name Herbert when Edward IV gave him the title Baron Herbert) built the ‘grandest castle’ ever built by a Welshman.

Sir Richard Herbert of Ewyas

He was the illegitimate son of William Herbert 1^st Earl of Pembroke (Richard was the grandson of William ap Thomas and nephew of Sir Richard Herbert both buried in St Mary’s Priory). His family tried to give him respectability by giving him the lordship of Ewyas. He married into the Cradock family. His eldest son would marry Anne Parr, sister of Katherine Parr (Henry VIII’s sixth wife).

St Mary's Priorys other monuments

In the Herbert Chapel there are two other tombs of note. Firstly, the tomb of William Baker (d.1648) and his wife, Joan. William was the nephew of David Augustine Baker.

Secondly, the tomb of Judge Andrew Powell (d.1631) and Margaret. Margaret was the daughter of Mathew Herbert of Coldbrook.

Located elsewhere around the church are the pre-Norman font, a bell dated from 1308, and the royal arms of Queen Anne dated 1709. The pre-Norman font is older than the original church itself. A very proud church warden informed me of this on my visit, and this has been confirmed in the guide he gave me. As mentioned previously this font was found buried in the courtyard. Where it was perhaps hidden during the Commonwealth period when the baptism of infants was unacceptable.

The tomb of Sir Andrew Powell (d. 1631) and his wife Margaret (d. 1641)

The medieval font dating from the 12th century

'The Bell of John' Dating from 14th century

St Mary’s Priory Conclusions

St Mary’s Priory has been wonderfully pleasant visit – surprising in matter of fact. Assumptions are never good. Looking from the outside it wasn’t that impressive but after stepping inside I’ve been blown away with the history that is entombed inside.

It’s not called ‘Westminster Abbey of Wales’ without reason. It is not on the scale of Westminster Abbey or boasts the same number of famous tombs and monuments but in St Mary’s there are several important persons from yesteryear who are buried there.

It’s a shame that little of the medieval church survives but the links between the church and castle are fascinating. The famous people learnt about at Abergavenny Castle are buried in the church.

The church layout confused me somewhat with a lack of the south aisle throwing my understanding of the church plan out the window.

This meandering though has taught me something new about the royal coats of arms that are often displayed in churches. I never knew why they were there. Henry VIII instructed the royal coat of arms to be displayed in all churches after his reformation to show that the monarchy was now the head of the church. A lot of these were removed by Mary I. Many were replaced during the reigns of Elizabeth, James I, Charles I & II, William III and Mary II. Something to keep my eye out for when next stepping inside a church.

The two chapels at St Mary’s Priory provide me with further inspirational meanderings. After learning about William ap Thomas and the ‘Herbert’ family a visit to Raglan Castle seems a necessity. How easy it is to visit Dr David Lewis’s connections to Oxford University and Jesus College remains to be seen.

September 21, 2025

Abergavenny Castle, Museum in Abergavenny, Wales

A visit to Abergavenny Castle and museum is very pleasant and thoroughly enjoyable. It is a place marked by intrigue, deception and murder throughout its long history and is associated with Welsh Marchland castles and the English Civil War.

Abergavenny Castle sits above the River Usk, with panoramic views as far as the Blorenge, Sugarloaf and Skirrid mountains (all worth a climb). Sadly, all that remains of the castle is a small section of picturesque ruins. Imagination is required!! These ruins are hidden from sight when visiting the town but follow the signs to the entrance gates where notice of free entry assists any with an inquisitive mind.

Join me as I explore another Marchland castle. It shares a similar history to those that have been recently visited but with a couple of dramatic and treacherous events. From its very early beginnings, it was an important castle. It played host to visiting monarchs as well as being the headquarters of the lordship of Abergavenny.

Abergavenny Castle History

Abergavenny Castle was established in 1087 by the Norman’s first Lord of Abergavenny – Hamelin de Ballon. The initial castle was motte and bailey. The motte is still clearly visible. Hamelin de Ballon, along with his brother Wynebald de Ballon, founded the Benedictine Priory in the town (will explore that later).

Hamelin’s two sons died without leaving an heir, so the inheritance was passed to Hamelin’s nephew Brian Fitz Count. Brian, like his uncles, left no heir so the Abergavenny Castle reverted to the crown (Henry II who reigned from 1154-1189). This Lordship of Abergavenny was then passed to 1^st Earl of Hereford – Miles FitzWalter of Gloucester.

The lordship passed through all his sons (one of the sons, Henry FitzMiles, was killed by forces of Seisyll ap Dyfnwal – many Welsh names of the time feature the word ‘ap’ meaning ‘son of’), but with none of the sons having any heirs, the inheritance passed to the daughter Bertha.

She was already married to William de Braose who became very powerful at the result the unexpected value in the marriage. His son, also called William (there were a lot of people called William de Braose who were lords at this time – this one was the 4^th Lord of Bramber, in Sussex, and lord of a number of places including Abergavenny and even places in Ireland and France), would become the most famous family member.

Christmas Massacre 1175

During these times there was a lot of tension between the Welsh princes and Normal lords in Wales. It took a turn for the worse when Henry FitzMiles was killed in the 1160s by Welsh forces of Seisyll ap Dyfnwal. William de Braose took it upon himself to avenge Henry’s death.

William’s treachery and trickery played out at Christmas 1175. He organised a dinner and invited Welsh noblemen and, of course, Seisyll, and his eldest son, for dinner. His invitation was, nominally, to overcome their differences and find a new path to peace. Upon their arrival they were asked to surrender their weapons at the gates (why did they do that?), before entering the Great Hall.

Once inside the doors were bolted shut and instead of a peaceful dinner and negotiations, the armed men of De Braose slew all inside. Once the gruesome act was complete, William and his men rode to Seisyll’s house and, reputedly, murdered his youngest son (aged 7) and captured his wife. De Braose’s had his revenge for his uncle’s death.

Revenge 1182

The result of William’s ruthless revenge sent shock waves across the land. The massacre was not well received by the English monarchy (Henry II). The castle and lands were removed from William and passed to his son, also called William (there’s a surprise!!) who had committed the atrocious act. The Welsh sought revenge, which was achieved when Hywel ap iorweth (Lord of Caerleon) attacked Dingestow Castle (which was destroyed) and Abergavenny castle (which was burnt).

Abergavenny castle rebuilt, attacked and rebuilt

Abergavenny’s strategic location was still important, guarding the River Usk and surrounding lowland areas. The De Braose family was in favour with King Richard I (reigned 1189-199) and King John I (reigned 119-1216) so work began to rebuild the castle. A new keep, surrounding stone curtain walls, and towers were built in red sandstone. King John I visited the castle in 1215.

In 1233 Abergavenny was one of the many castles in the region attacked and destroyed by Earl of Pembroke.

After the De Braose association with Abergavenny castle came to an end, it passed through the De Cantilupe family (they married into the De Braose family) to the Hastings family in 1273. The Hastings family continued an expansion program of the castle with two western towers, a circular and a polygonal tower added. The remains of these works are what may be seen today. Some members of the Hastings family, along with Eva De Braose, are buried in the Priory Church of St Mary.

Abergavenny Castle grounds looking at St Mary's Priory

Abergavenny Castle & Owain Glyndwr

The Owain Glyn Dwr rebellion swept across Wales early in the 15^th century. As I learnt during my visit to Usk Castle, this threatened the security of the English in the region and an alarmed King Henry IV (reigned 1367- 1413). King Henry IV gave instructions to strengthen and reinforce Abergavenny castle and increase the size of the garrison.

The barbican (which you walk through first) was built to replace the original gatehouse. The then current lord was William Beauchamp. In 1404 the town of Abergavenny was besieged by Owain Glyn Dwr and his followers, but the castle was never captured or damaged. St Mary’s Priory didn’t fare as well; I shall explore this in more detail when I visit. William Beauchamp was ordered to stay at the castle and defend it and the town until 1409. The garrison included some 80 mounted soldiers and around 400 archers.

Civil war at Abergavenny Castle

In the years after the Owain rebellion Abergavenny’s castle, like the other castles visited in the region, began to fall into a state of ruin so that by the time of the Civil War (1642-1651) the castle required reinforcement.

Abergavenny castle at this time was held by the royalists, loyal to King Charles I (reigned 1625-1649), who was to visit the castle twice in 1645, trying to raise a new army after being defeated at the battle of Naseby. When King Charles I left the second time, the Roundheads (Parliamentarians but also called Roundheads by their enemies because many of them had short, cropped hair) were fast approaching, and he ordered that the castle’s living quarters be destroyed.

The back-and-forth nature of the Civil War meant that after Charles I had abandoned Abergavenny, the Roundheads made it their base a year later. The Parliamentarians were able to hold Abergavenny after the royalists attacked the castle. Two years later, in 1647, after the surrender of Raglan Castle (in 1646) had taken place, orders were given to slight the castle (make it indefensible).

19th century – Abergavenny Castle

Sat on top of the motte (the oldest part of the castle) is a conspicuous building. It is the former hunting lodge (now the Abergavenny Museum) built by the Marquess of Abergavenny (William Nevill) in 1818-19. Though a relatively modern building, it was built to look like a former medieval keep. In 1881 the castle grounds were opened to the public due to the increasing popularity of the picturesque views that were possible.

Abergavenny Castle Today

Abergavenny Castle is sandwiched between the shops of this market town and the river Usk. Abergavenny Castle is a hidden gem and loaded with history.

It is an atmospheric and historic spot for a picnic, to meet people and for kids to run about tirelessly. If kids can be persuaded to take a break from expending their energy there is much for them to learn. Some research and reading are required to understand its turbulent past but carefully situated around the ruins are numerous information boards. These provide detail on what the castle would have looked like.

A walk up the former motte is highly recommended. “Why?”, I hear you ask. The views are rewarding and you’ll find Abergavenny Museum. The museum, like the castle and grounds is free to enter, and provides much information and resources about the town and castles history.

Abergavenny Castle has similar history to other nearby castles (Usk & Three castles) visited. Its fascinating history has brought different characters to the fore and opened other avenues to pursue. I hope you enjoy visiting as much as I have.

September 14, 2025September 15, 2025

Usk Castle, “Usk’s Enchanting and hidden Gem”, Usk, Monmouthshire

Mysteriously set on top of the hill and hidden from view are the romantic ruins of Usk castle. Its strategic and military position become obvious when walking around as it provides a beautiful view over the local area. No prizes for guessing that the village and river it overlooks are also called Usk.

The castle is privately owned with its owners opening the castle to visitors on Sundays between April and September for a small donation (£4 in 2025). A leaflet has been created to help guide visitors around the castle.

Join me as I discover this lesser-known marchland castle, exploring its remaining ruins and try to piece together its history which culminated in the battle of Pwll Melyn.

There is no guidebook to purchase, nor can I find one online. Perhaps getting hold of a copy of Adam of Usk Chronicles might be a good source of valuable information and knowledge. The book’s age and rarity mean this is merely a pipe dream, as the only one seen for sale is over £200!!

There are some connections between Usk castle and the ‘Three Castles’. The final military action seen at Grosmont Castle links heavily with the battle of Usk that took place here. The research compiled on Usk castle builds on the knowledge gained at the ‘Three Castles’ but leaves me in a bit of a muddle, with similar names causing much confusion. Understanding the complexities of Medieval England is hard work.

Usk castle History

The origins are hard to trace back. The Romans created a legionary Roman Fort in Usk called Burrium (around AD55). Whether it incorporated the hill that the castle sits on I don’t know. The Romans left Usk and moved to Caerleon.

The first written mention of the castle of Usk comes in 1138 where a small wooden motte and baily castle was established overlooking the town and captured by the Welsh. Much of my research is inspired from the paintings of ‘characters’ that I assume are associated with the castle’s history on the ceiling of a wooden gazebo in the grounds.

Richard de Clare aka ‘Strongbow’

Ownership of the castle at this point was in the de Clare family who were the Earls of Pembroke and Striguil (former name of Chepstow). There was a brief interlude when Hywel ap Iowerth controlled the castle. Hywel was the Welsh lord of Caerleon.

Richard de Clare, the 2^nd Earl of Pembroke also known as ‘Strongbow’, built the original gatehouse around 1170. He is the first person of interest from this information ceiling. Strongbow gave the town its first charter and he founded Usk priory. He would go on to conquer parts of Ireland for Henry II. He left a son and daughter, the son died too young to take the earldom and it passed to his elder sister Isabella de Clare.

William Marshall

Isabella was very wealthy and married the famous William Marshal. His name cropped up in the ‘Three Castles’ as he and Hubert de Burgh were the most powerful men of the time. William took ownership of Usk castle upon his marriage and set about adding stone defences.

William added the curtain walls around the perimeter along with several towers. William was known as the greatest knight and solider in the realm. His battle experience gave him the knowledge to build the round keeps. The round garrison tower installed in Usk is like those associated with William at Pembroke and Hubert at Skenfrith.

Elizabeth de Burgh

By 1289 the castle fell into the hands of Gilbert de Clare 7^th Earl of Gloucester (builder of the second largest castle in the UK at Caerphilly). Gilbert’s great grandfather was William Marshal. I’m not entirely sure if he was in any way a relation to de Clares who first occupied the castle. Gilbert died at the battle of Bannockburn (1314).

Usk castle passed to Elizabeth de Burgh (de Burgh the name taken from her first marriage) who was the third daughter of Gilbert. She is also there on the ‘information ceiling’. She must have had some serious history with the place. My research informs me that she poured much of her wealth into funding Clare College, Cambridge (the second oldest of Cambridge’s 31 colleges). I believe there is a link between the de Clare name and the small village of Clare in Sussex. Elizabth did go on to erect the hall block, chapel and solar (an upper chamber in a medieval building) on the northeast side.

The castle later passed to the Mortimers, a family dynasty who held great power over the Welsh marches and political eminence between the 13^th and 15^th Centuries. Usk Castle was one of the last castles the family acquired. The Mortimers built a wall around the outer bailey on the south with one round tower and a rectangular gatehouse.

Adam of Usk

Usk’s most prominent piece of history came in 1402 and 1405. It was also around this time that the town’s most famous son lived. Adam of Usk (1352-1430) was a Welsh priest who wrote a Chronicle covering the late 14^th and early 15^th century. He trained as a lawyer at the university of Oxford, before serving the Archbishop of Canterbury and King Henry IV. His chronicle covers the years 1377 – 1421 and, in particular, the Welsh revolt against English rule led by Owain Glyndwr. He is buried in the priory church in Usk.

Owain Glyndwr

After ousting his cousin Richard II, Henry IV set about quashing rebellions. The last major Welsh rebellion against the English was led by Owain Glyndwr. Owain burnt the town of Usk in 1402 before his forces returned in 1405.

After sacking the castle at Grosmont they turned their attentions to Usk. Owain’s forces under the leadership of his eldest son were defeated trying to capture Usk castle. They came up against a substantial force under the command of Lord Grey of Codnor who defeated Owain’s forces at the battle of Pwll Melyn. The defeat left 300 prisoners who were all killed at Usk Castle after the battle.

After the rebellion the castle was repaired and became a residence more than a military stronghold. The castle reverted to the crown. Slowly the castle fell into a state of disrepair. Stone from the castle was removed to build the Great House in Usk. It survived the English Civil War with only a little damage.

Usk Castle today

The final picture in my history of Usk castle from the ceiling is that of Rudge and Anne Humphreys. I’m led to believe they purchased the castle for £525 in 1933. The family open the castle to visitors on Sunday’s for a small donation. The castle can be hired for events.

Usk Castle Layout

Entering the castle is along a driveway and through a set of gates. Sitting on top is a crown and two lions. After paying your entry fee make your way along the edge of outer ward towards the castle keep.

The outer ward is now the family home of the Humphreys, and no access is allowed – understandable but a shame.

By the family house is a beautiful tithe barn there is a 13^th century dovecote which looks a fine example and would add knowledge to the one discovered in Dunster.

The sign on the castle keep is dated 1170. This was the work of Richard Strongbow. After capturing a few images, I retrace my steps back to the outer edge of outer ward and walk up to the castle gate. The sign here informs me that the gate dates to around 1214 which was during Willima Marshal’s ownership.

When you walk through the castle gate you enter the inner ward. Directly in front of you is the garrison tower. I will work my way around to the tower shortly but for now I take an anticlockwise approach around the inner ward. This leads me to, in my opinion, the most valuable item in the castle – the wooden gazebo near the guard tower.

Moving around the inner ward I arrive at the northern tower. A little exploration here and you’ll find the former chapel of St George along with the banqueting hall, which the sign informs me is 1326 and the time of Elizabeth de Burgh.

From the banqueting hall you can pick up the curtain wall and walk along the top of it to the Garrison tower. The date on the sign here is 1212 which confirms is the time William Marshal installed the walls and towers to protect the inner ward. Access can be made down through the tower back into the inner ward. Sadly, this is the only section of the walls that can be traversed.

I leave behind the garrison tower and walk inside the remaining walls. A sign above a door in the wall is the only evidence of the remaining south tower. There is a gap in the walls at this point that affords two wonderful views. Firstly, the best view of the tithe barn and dovecote. Secondly, the village of Usk.

The final part of a walk around the inner ward brings me back to the other side of the castle keep where my tour first began.

Usk Castle conclusions

My visit to Usk castle was achieved by pure luck rather than precise judgment and planning. It is off the beaten track and is another tremendous place about which to learn. Medieval England is proving a great fascination and challenging learning experience. Each visit on this trip is making the call of Pembroke Castle even louder. Also add to that Temple church in London to visit the grave of William Marshal. Visits are also required to the small village of Clare in Suffolk and to Cambridge.

Simon Jenkins writes in his Wales: Churches, Houses, Castles, that Usk Castle is “everything a Cadw castle is not. It is wild, unmanicured and idiosyncratic. Where a government castle is scrubbed and tidy, Usk respects the dishevelment of age… If ruins must be ruins, let them be like this.” Meandering around the castle it’s hard to disagree with Mr Jenkins. I hope that I have inspired you to visit the castle by delving into its history and exploring the castle. If you’ve been I would love to know your thoughts, if you haven’t been I hope you will visit one day.

September 7, 2025September 13, 2025

Three Castles, Abergavenny, Monmouthshire, Wales

‘Three Castles’ refers to a trio of Norman castles set in the Monnow valley in southern Wales. The Monnow valley is carved into the hills of Monmouthshire and very close to the English and Welsh border. The castles of Grosmont, White & Skenfrith are excellent evidence of the turbulent history of the Welsh borderland area (known as the marchland or marches) in the medieval centuries.

After their conquest in 1066, the Normans set about protecting whilst expanding their newly acquired kingdom. The Three Castles are each of motte and bailey construction and were to protect the route between Wales and Hereford. Much of what we see today is due to Hubert de Burgh’s foresight.

Join me as I explore each of the ‘Three Castles’, cheating slightly as I drove to each one, rather than doing the 19-mile circular walking route between them. I learn about motte and bailey castles and explore some of the fascinating history of England and Wales. Each individual castle is surprisingly free to enter and now managed by either the National Trust or Cadw (a Welsh organisation protecting historic sites – cadw is a Welsh word meaning to keep or protect).

Motte & Bailey castles

This style of castle was basic in construction, relatively quick to build, and designed to intimidate. The Norman motte and bailey castles were built in strategic locations to help consolidate power and secure towns after their successful invasion.

Motte & bailey castles were made up of two structures – a motte, and a bailey. The word ‘motte’ means mound which was often artificial but sometimes on a natural formation. It was the chosen place to build a wooden or stone keep on its top. This was then surrounded by a palisade (a defensive wall of pointed wooden stakes). The height of the mound provided a valuable viewpoint out across the local landscape with the mound providing a line of defence against attackers.

At the bottom of the motte would be a protected area known as a bailey. Any palisade built was there to protect buildings as another layer of defence. In some cases, outside these fortifications there would have been a ditch or moat offering yet more defence. A gatehouse provided entrance/exit to and from the castle.

History of the Three Castles

Looking back through time doesn’t provide much evidence as to who first established the origins of the Three Castles. Possibly it was William FitzOsbern, Earl of Hereford, who instructed some basic fortifications at the sites of the Three Castles to be built towards the end of the 11^th century.

But by the 12^th century there is evidence of their existence. After a couple of rebellions, the most notable being in 1135, the then current King (Stephen) unified the three castles under one lordship known as the Three Castles.

The Three Castles in the 13th century

At the beginning of the 13^th century a name that is symbolic with all three castles is that of Hubert de Burgh. Hubert was an excellent military man and a loyal servant to King John I who rewarded him with the lordship of the ‘Three Castles’.

Hubert would fall in and out of favour with the monarchy. In his pomp Hubert was one of the most influential and powerful men in England as he took on the role of Chief Justiciar and given the title of Earl of Kent.

The ownership of the Three Castles passed to his rivals a couple of times during his ownership when he fell from grace. Much of the Three Castles we see today is the result of the works undertaken by Hubert.

When Hubert passed away the castles found their way back to the monarchy. On the throne at the time was King Henry III. Henry III completed some works on the Three Castles before granting them to his eldest son, Edward (later Edward I) before they were passed to his second son Edmund ‘Crouchback’ Earl of Lancaster (second son of Henry III).

This was the start of a lengthy association between the Three Castles and the earldom (later duchy) of Lancaster. This ended in 1825 when the castles were sold off. Henry III’s son, Edward I was known as Edward Longshanks (Hammer of the Scots, William Wallace and all that). Before his wars in Scotland, Edward I conquered Wales in 1283 with the help of his brother. A result of their success made the Three Castles and other castles in the region redundant, as the whole of Wales fell under English rule.

Last military action at Three Castles

The castles maintained an administrative position and were maintained in the years after. The Three Castles saw their last military action in 1405. A year earlier in 1404 Owain Glyndwr lead a revolt to overthrow English occupancy in Wales. He besieged the castle at Grosmont in 1405, but a force sent by Prince Henry (later Henry V – born in nearby Monmouth) defeated them. This was a prelude to the Welsh attack on Usk castle (a place I will visit shortly) a few months later which ended in disaster.

As a result, by the 16^th century, the Three Castles had fallen into a state of disuse, disrepair and ruin and never to be recovered to their former glory. Now the ‘Three Castles’ under the ownership of Cadw and National Trust provide us with an insight into their wonderful history.

White Castle

The first of the three castles visited is White Castle or to use its original name was Llantilio Castle. The castle is very remote and completely detached from civilisation. Its ruins are excellent evidence of the motte and bailey castle, although the signage and guidebook refer to the motte (inner ward) and bailey (outer ward).

It seems to be the furthest away from the English/Welsh border and the last of the three to developed. Its location may explain why it never saw any military action. Finding a safe space to park the car was tricky. A gentle stroll from the car park led me to the outer gatehouse.

White castle is now a peaceful ruin. It clearly shows the curtain wall that surrounded the outer ward. Evidence can be seen of 4 towers placed at different points of the wall along with the gatehouse. Entry is through the gatehouse. As you walk over a bridge the ditch that would have surrounded the outer ward is evident. The outer ward is now a wild meadow and perfect spot to have a picnic. It is hard to imagine the hustle and bustle that would have been here in medieval times.

Leaving behind the outer ward I approach the bridge across the moat (severely dried up after a long hot summer). Two imposing round towers help form the inner gatehouse. Upon walking through and into the inner ward it is completely derelict. There is broken gap in the curtain walls in one corner, otherwise the walls remain intact although not accessible.

In the inner ward the floor plan resembles a pear shape, with ground evidence of a chapel, hall, kitchen, accommodation and a well. There were enough facilities to make the castle habitable for previous owners. Cross shaped windows provide some views of the neighbouring countryside.

Skenfrith Castle

The second of the Three Castles visited was Skenfrith Castle, which, unlike White castle, is in the centre of a small village. The river Monnow meanders alongside the edge of the castle and was used to provide the water for the moat. In the middle of the village there is a charming church (St Bridget’s) which is well worth exploring whilst on the outskirts is delightful restaurant and hotel (The Bell Hotel) which provides refreshments and accommodation.

This castle is also now owned by the National Trust and managed by Cadw. Perhaps it is this combination of owner and manager that has been instrumental in continued free entrance. Parking can be made right next to the castle and a short walk to the entrance is made before climbing some steps into the raised earthworks of the castle.

Skenfrith Castle could be literally described as 4 walls and a keep, a quadrilateral floor plan with towers in each corner. In the heart of the castle is the remains a keep tower. All the ruins that are witnessed here are from the Hubert de Burghtenure. Upon acquiring the Three Castles Lordship he pulled down the existing castle and rebuilt the current one. Apparently, it was easier to do this than modify what was already in place.

As you enter the inner ward, you’ll be immediately drawn to the round keep tower. Hubert was a military man, and his excursions would have exposed him to castles within France at the time. The round keep was developed by Philip II, king of France, against whom Hubert battled. A visit to Villeneuve-sur-Yonne would provide evidence of Philip’s keep. Hubert gained his knowledge and ideas of building them from his visits to France. An example of the round keep a little closer to home is at Pembroke castle where Hubert’s ally William Marshal (who also fought against Philip) built one.

Round Keep looking through the North-West Tower

Grosmont Castle

The last of the Three Castles is situated overlooking the village of Grosmont. Park on the high street of the village and walk up a lane where, at its end, you pass through a farm gate to behold Grosmont Castle. Entry is made through a picturesque gate with the name Grosmont forged in and over a bridge. Walking across the bridge shows the steep ditch that was part of the castle’s defences.

Grosmont castle seems smaller than the other two castles visited. There is also a major difference in design here as a distinct hall like structure forms part of the outer perimeter. Attached to two corners are curtain walls that enclose the inner ward. Three towers and the gatehouse are situated in these walls. The walls and towers were constructed by Hubert de Burgh during his ownership. Access can be made to parts of the wall’s walkway and the southwest tower, which is a very pleasant surprise.

The construction that took place in the 14^th century is evidenced firstly by the tall octagonal chimney which formed part of the north block. Secondly there are enlargements made to the southwest tower. These would have been completed by the Earl of Lancaster at the time.

Three Castles conclusions

This concludes an unexpected exploration of the Three Castles. It has been a thoroughly enjoyable experience which was greatly enhanced by free admission to all 3!!

The visits brought to life parts of England’s history about which I was blissfully unaware. The tumultuous times of medieval England are fascinating to learn about. King John I (Robin Hood memories and buried in Worcester Cathedral), Henry III (visit to Westminster Abbey), Edward I (warfare against the Scots) were all monarchs of whom I had tiny bits of knowledge, but that has been greatly enhanced during this discovery.

Another aspect of knowledge that has greatly been enhanced is castle architecture. Motte and bailey, palisade, curtain walls, gatehouses, inner and outer wards have all been learned about on this trip. Further inspiration to visit Pembroke Castle is a must along with other marchland castles. A visit to Usk castle also seems to be essential in understanding the local history (watch this space).

So, I leave this delightful area on the border of Wales and England with a spring in my step – the Three Castles has been very educational. I look forward to exploring more of this historic local area.

August 31, 2025September 13, 2025

Southwark Cathedral, Cathedral in London, Southwark, London

Southwark Cathedral is the mother church of the diocese of Southwark and another London Landmark added (click here to see others). The cathedral is a peaceful sanctuary from the busyness of the modern metropolis. Its exact location is a little hidden from view as it’s sandwiched between the river and the railway. The bright lights and smells of Borough Market distract or attract many a passerby so much so that its very existence may not be known to the masses.

This charming Cathedral is one of England’s youngest having been raised to cathedral status at the beginning of the 20^th century. There has been a church at the site for over 1000 years. Join me as I explore the gothic architecture and history of this cathedral nestled in the heart of London.

Early History of Southwark Cathedral

Its origins are a little hazy – a sign outside says it was a convent as early as AD 606. The first written evidence comes from the Domesday book of 1086 where reference is made of a minster.

In the year 1106, two Norman knights (William Pont de l’Arche and William Dauncey) re-founded the church as a priory for Augustine Canons. At this point the church was dedicated to St Mary and was called ‘St Mary Overie’. The consensus is that Overie means ‘over the river’. Sadly, nothing remains of the Norman church after a fire destroyed what was there in 1212.

The church’s location on the Thames Southbank was incredibly strategic as at the time it was the only crossing point of the River Thames. During its time as a priory church, it became part of the Diocese of Winchester (a city some 60 miles away from London in a south westerly direction).

The Diocese of Winchester, one of the oldest and richest dioceses in the land, meant it had a great deal of influence. In acquiring the lands around Southwark, it allowed the bishop of Winchester to build a palace for his London residence (just like Lambeth).

When walking along the Thames embankment you pass what looks like some random ruins. These ruins are what remains of the former great hall of Winchester Palace. I missed these on my way to the cathedral possibly by being distracted!! This building is evidence of an important link between the Bishop of Winchester and Southwark Cathedral. During these times the powerful bishops of Winchester were involved in shaping and building of the church at Southwark.

A Royal Wedding

In 1424, the Bishop of Winchester (Henry Beaufort, who was the illegitimate son of John of Gaunt, the Duke of Lancaster) chose to marry his niece, Joan Beaufort, to King James I of Scotland. Also, during the 15^th century, a benefactor of the church was John Gower. Upon his death he left a large sum of money to the priory and has a beautiful tomb within the nave of the church.

Southwark Cathedral History continued

The dissolution of the monasteries was covered in 2 Acts (1535 & 1539) and resulted in the destruction of the monasteries in England. When travelling around the country abbey ruins may be seen – Glastonbury, Tintern, Fountains, Bolton, are some fine examples. There are always exceptions to the rule – Bath, Sherborne and Westminster. The church at Southwark took a different path as it became the property of Henry VIII. He decided to rent the church back to the congregation. Perhaps this ‘saving’ of the church led to its renaming as St Saviour’s.

William Shakespeare lived during the end of Elizabeth’s reign and during James’s reign. He is associated with the Globe theatre (also on the Southbank). A memorial is placed in the nave of the church in his honour though his burial place is at Stratford -upon-Avon. William’s brother, Edmund, is buried in the church.

After the Tudor period, the congregation was tired of renting from the king, so, a group of merchants brought the church from King James I in 1611 for £800.

John Harvard was baptized in the church on 29 November 1607. His surname is famous around the world. His generosity led to the founding of Harvard University. A private chapel is dedicated to John.

The only Bishop of Winchester to be buried in the church. Lancelot Andrewes was laid to rest in 1626. He was involved in the translation of the King James Bible (1611).

In the following centuries the church flowed with the times. Alterations were made, repairs patched it up until the church became a real cause for concern. It managed to survive being flattened to make way for a new ‘London bridge’. With its survival lead to the restoration of the building by architect George Gwilt.

Southwark’s association with the Diocese of Winchester came to an end in 1877 and it was transferred to the diocese of Rochester. A new nave was designed by Sir Arthur Blomfield paving the way for the church to receive cathedral status in 1905 along with the creation of the new diocese of Southwark.

Southwark Cathedral Design

The cathedral layout is that of a traditional cruciform plan. The nave consists of 6 bays. Pointed arches on either side of the nave display the gothic design. They lead majestically up to the crossing. Above the arches is a plain rib vault ceiling giving a light and airy appearance.

The nave was rebuilt several times with the final rebuild taking place between 1890 and 1897. This new part of the building was criticised by Pugin who wrote, “It is bad enough to see such an erection spring up at all, but when a venerable building is demolished to make way for it, the case is quite intolerable.”

The crossing is a painted ceiling with central tower above. The northern and southern transepts are filled with monuments to those buried in the cathedral – monumens to Dr Lionel Lockyear and Richard Blisse are two that have been photographed.

Harvard Chapel

Next to the north transept is the Harvard Chapel. This name is associated with the famous American university. A stained-glass window depicting the baptism of Christ with written words to the memory of American colonist John Harvard may be found there. The top windows have the coat of arms of Emmanuel college (Cambridge) and Harvard University.

Founder of Harvard University in America

The Great Screen and Altar Piece

The Chancel at the eastern end of the church includes the choir and the high altar. Behind the high altar is the Great Screen and a treasure of the cathedral. The original screen would have been lacking in the detail we see today. It was completed during the reformation when statues were forbidden.

The figures are a who’s who of the priory, church and cathedral history. The statues were completed somewhere around the beginning of the 20^th century with the majority carved by Messrs Nicolls of Lambeth. Some of the carvings included are Cardinal Henry Beaufort, Saint Thomas Becket, John Gower, Saint Swithun, Henry I, Edward VII, Richard Fox and Lancelot Andrewes.

Southwark Cathedral Conclusions

The visit to Southwark Cathedral was fascinating. It is the oldest gothic church building in London – blink when you’re walking about London and you may miss it.

The history of the cathedral coincides with this country’s illustrious past. The visit has increased my growing knowledge of church and cathedral construction. It has highlighted some differences between English and Italian churches. In England a ‘cathedral’ is associated with ‘City status’. City status is at the discretion of the monarch but need not be granted to cities having a cathedral. Southwark, of course, falls under the greater London area.

The cathedral is the mother church of Southwark diocese. The diocese covers a large area from Kingston-upon-Thames to Thamesmead and all the way down to Gatwick airport.

Much of the cathedral’s history is associated with Winchester. I have been there before but feel that I need to revisit. Also, I’ve learnt that the streets of London are loaded with history, and I regret not investigating the former Great Hall of Winchester Palace.

August 24, 2025September 13, 2025

Lambeth Palace, Offical residence of Archbishop of Canterbury, London, England

Nestled on the south bank of the River Thames and opposite the Victoria Gardens and Westminster Palace is Lambeth Palace. A lesser-known London landmark but one full of history and importance. It is off the beaten track with access limited to visits on only 3 days per year. Best book well in advance!!

Lambeth Palace is the London home of the Archbishop of Canterbury. In this post exploration is made over whys and wherefores of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Lambeth Palace has been the Archbishop of Canterbury’s London home for over 800 years. There is a lot of history to delve into and a palace to explore. This visit includes access to the Great Hall, Chapel, Crypt & State Room.

The Archbishop of Canterbury

The first Archbishop of Canterbury was Augustine back in 597AD. He was sent to England by Pope Gregory I. It was his mission to convert the natives to Roman Christianity. He landed in Ebbsfleet in Kent. Kent was one of a few separate kingdoms in England at that time. With Canterbury its capital city under the reign of King Aethelberht. In 601 Augustine was appointed archbishop and established his seat in the capital at Canterbury.

Supposedly Pope Gregory I wanted the centre of Christianity in England moved to London. At the time London was part of another kingdom called Essex. So, Canterbury remained the centre of Christianity, even to this day, even though London would ultimately overtake Canterbury and become the capital of a united England.

The role of the Archbishop of Canterbury has been consistent since its foundation, apart from a few gaps. The most notable of these was during the 17^th Century Civil War. Its role can be split into two “halves”. In the first period its role was part of the Catholic church with the Pope being the head of the Church.

I have often referred to the reformation which coincided with Henry VIII’s reign. Henry’s legacy was his ‘divorce’, not only maritally speaking but from papacy (the pope in question at the time was Clement VII – 2^nd Medici Pope). In 1534 the Act of Supremacy was invoked by parliament that made the monarch the head of the church. At this time the archbishop was Thomas Cranmer. The act was briefly repealed in 1555 under Henry VIII’s catholic daughter, Mary I, but adopted again in 1559 during the reign of his second daughter, Elizabeth I.

Thomas was well known for his reformation of the church which began during the reign of Henry and continued during his son’s reign (Edward VI). Mary undid much of what Cranmer had accomplished and the conflict between these two ended with Cranmer executed. He was a believer of the divine right of kings and the rule of the church and is often referred to as the spiritual founder of the reformed church in England.

The Archbishop of Canterbury has a long list of roles. The archbishop is the senior bishop and spiritual leader of the Church of England (Anglican), a senior member of the house of Lords, head of the worldwide Anglican communion and the bishop for the diocese of Canterbury.

On recent meanderings I have discovered that a diocese is an ecclesiastical province or area. In this case it is Canterbury. At the head of a diocese is a bishop who is based at a cathedral.

The diocese of Canterbury covers eastern Kent and includes towns like Thanet, Romney, Dover, Maidstone and Sittingbourne. In the church of England there are a total of 42 dioceses.

The Church of England and its 42 dioceses are presided over by two archbishops: the Archbishop of Canterbury, who is ‘primate of All England’ (30 dioceses), and the Archbishop of York, who is ‘primate of England’ (12 dioceses).

History of Lambeth Palace

Lambeth Palace was originally known as the Manor of Lambeth. The palace has a story to tell, as it has played witness to the differing political and religious events of this country. If only walls could talk!!

Lambeth’s location is important. It is close to Westminster (on the opposite side of the River Thames) and it was crucial in the strong ties between the church and state. During medieval ages the archbishop was one of the monarch’s chief councillors. He often took on the role of the Chancellor.

Like many great points of interest there have been building changes through the ages. These are commonly associated with desirable and fashionable changes or as the result of natural damages or conflict of war. Lambeth Palace is no exception.

Early in the 13^th Century the first set of works took place at Lambeth as a small palace which included private apartments, a chapel and a great hall. The monks of Canterbury felt so threatened over the building of the chapel that they appealed to the Pope to stop it. A compromise was made that only a small church would be built here.

Towards the end of 15^th century, the site’s most iconic structure was built – Morton’s Tower. It is named to this day after Archbishop Morton who ordered its construction to replace the existing gatehouse. Castle like in appearance it is 5 storeys high. It was originally used as a porter’s lodge, prison and accommodation for senior household members. Sadly, access wasn’t permitted during my visit. Research informs me, though, that from the tower, ‘dole’ (bread, broth and money) was given to the poor and needy.

Under Cranmer’s leadership the palace played a central role in the reformation. Cranmer followed the design of his monarch Henry VIII’s residences. Henry VIII was a frequent visitor to Lambeth. Private chambers and a long gallery were added. Most of these were demolished in the 19^th century.

Early in the 17^th century Archbishop Bancroft founded the Lambeth Palace library. He bequeathed his collection of books to the library. This was the first public library in England.

King Charles I was executed early in 1649, and Lambeth Palace fell into a state of disrepair. The position of archbishop was abolished with the palace turned into a prison. Parliamentarian soldiers were camped there from 1642 – 1660. The great hall was pulled down, the chapel damaged and archbishop Parker’s tomb was desecrated. His remains were thrown onto a dung heap in the stable yard. The first archbishop after the restoration of the monarchy of 1660 was Juxon. He set about getting the chapel repaired, reinterred Parker’s remains and rebuilt the great Hall.

Come the 19^th century and a survey by Edward Blore was completed with devasting conclusions. He recommended that all the buildings be pulled down and rebuilt. Money was raised by archbishop Howley from his own pocket along with getting a mortgage.

During the Blitz of 1941 the Palace was severely damaged. All windows were blown out of the palace and the Great Hall went up in flames. This required another period of restoration.

Painting of Morton tower & St Mary's church

The Great Hall at Lambeth Palace

The grand hall is a modern representation of the hall that has stood here since the early 13^th century. As mentioned in Lambeth’s history it has been rebuilt at least twice. Firstly, during Cromwell’s Commonwealth period, the hall was pulled down with the bricks being sold. Secondly the hall was destroyed by a fire during the blitz.

The great hall was built as a venue to entertain. The archbishop would have hosted important dignitaries be fitting their role in the monarch’s council. It is now home to the library although on my visit there is only small evidence at each end of books being stored. Nothing in comparison to the images shown in the guidebook or on the website.

Looking up at the ceiling of the Great Hall

The Chapel at Lambeth Palace

One of the oldest parts of the palace dating back to early 13^th century. A private chapel for the Archbishop of Canterbury. It has seen many additions and alterations. The most recent was its rebuilding after being hit with an incendiary device.

The small chapel consists of five vaults. Its most striking feature is several murals painted on the vaulted ceiling. I would be astonished if the murals aren’t a topic of much debate. They’re bright and striking to say the least.

The 5 vaults cover 5 subjects: St. Augustine’s arrival in England; the life of Becket (Archbishop of Canterbury during the reign of Henry II and murdered in the cathedral in 1170); the consecration of Matthew Parker; the Lambeth Conference and, the head of Christ at the east end.

Mathew Parker is the only archbishop buried at Lambeth Palace.

Stained glass window in Lambeth Palace Chapel

State Drawing Room at Lambeth Palace

This was restored after the blitz and reconstructed according to Edward Blore’s original design. The room overlooks the Palace gardens. The room used to be the archbishop’s daily living room but now is used for entertaining visiting guests. In this room there are portraits of Sir Robert Walpole, Cardinal Reginald Pole, King Charles I & Katherine of Aragon.

The room leads into the Dining room. The table is laid out with crockery with an emphasis on green. On the wall at the head of the table is a painting of ‘The Four Latin Fathers of the Church’. The corridors in this part of the palace have portraits of former Archbishops of Canterbury.

Information regarding painting of Katherine of Aragon

The guard room at Lambeth Palace

Known as the Great Chamber before it was the named the Guard Room. Its name change occurred when the archbishop had his own private army. They stored their weapons in here. This was the most important room in the Palace in the 14^th, 15^th and 16^th centuries. It was here that the archbishop would have greeted visitors. On my visit it displayed some pieces of Art on the walls. One picture captured my attention – a portrait of St Catherine of Siena.

Conclusions

A visit to Lambeth Palace provides a chance to explore one of the lesser-known landmarks – another London landmark added!! I found its history more appealing that the physical palace itself which was quite ordinary. The building is generally a replica of what used to be here.

The visit has given me inspiration to visit the county of Kent. I must visit the city of Canterbury, and its cathedral. A visit to Lambeth makes a trip to Canterbury seem imperative.

August 17, 2025September 13, 2025

Florence, Capital city of Tuscany, City in Italy

Florence is an iconic city known around the world as many people flock to visit her each year. It is the capital of Tuscany, which is one of 20 regions that form the country of Italy.

It is a city where its history is etched in its art and woven into its architecture. The city became the leading light in a new Europe after the darkness of the Black Death had pervaded it. This led to the birth of Humanism, which ultimately affected the birth of the Renaissance in the 14^th -16^th centuries. Much of this is down to the Medici family that saw an opportunity to build a dynasty. Each generation of the family were patrons of the arts and endowed much wealth into improvements to the city’s architecture.

The great beauty of Florence has left many a person in awe. Sore necks or even Florence Syndrome can be caused by the constant viewing!! Read on as I try to piece together Florence’s fascinating history, the characters that shaped the city and explain where the evidence for all this can be seen. This final blog on Florence (there are references to previous posts) is by way of summary of its history.

Florence Early beginnings

Originally founded by the Etruscans in the 6^th & 7^th centuries BC, it was supressed by Rome in 395 BC. Florence’s location was important as it was the only practical crossing of the River Arno as discovered in the post on Ponte Vecchio. The Romans saw the importance of the strategic location and as roads were built out of Rome, they knew that this location would provide access to Bologna and Faeza.

A military outpost was set up. This led to building of Roman structures like a theatre, spas, forum, etc. Sadly, there is little evidence of the Roman presence in the city although a visit to Vecchio Palace will allow you to see some Roman ruins (not accessible on my visit). The Romans named the city ‘Fiorentina’ meaning “flowering” (also the name of the city’s football team).

Florence in the Middle Ages

During the Middle Ages the city began to rise in prominence. It’s gold ‘Florin’ became the leading currency in the western world as Florentine banks established branches throughout Europe. This led to a war between Florence and Siena for control of Tuscany and the ultimate client the Holy See.

During 12^th and 13^th centuries the city struggled internally as factions who supported the Pope (Guelphs) clashed with those who supported the Holy Roman Emperor ((Ghibellines) – not to be confused with Rome – the emperor controlled most of central Europe before its defeat to Napolean and dissolution in 1806). The established banks in this period suffered an economic crisis in the 14^th century as loans made to European sovereigns were defaulted because of the 100 years wars leading to their collapse.

It was during these struggles that Dante Alighieri was exiled and wrote ‘The Divine Comedy’. Born in Florence, Dante still looms large over the city. His body isn’t buried in the city. A read of his books and a visit to his childhood home (sadly hasn’t been completed) would provide ample information on the man himself. Sadly, all I learnt about him was from the large statue in front of Santa Croce, his cenotaph inside, and his Death Mask house in the Palazzo Vecchio.

Arnolfo also started works on 3 iconic buildings within the city, Basilica of Santa Croce, Palazzo Vecchio and Cathedral of Santa Marie del Fiore. At the same time city walls were constructed to protect the people.

Cosimo de’ Medici (Father of His Country)

In the 15^th century the Medici family saw their opportunity and began forging their dynasty. As the Medici family was not of the aristocracy, it had to force their way onto to the scene. Their opportunity came after the banking collapse in the 14^th century as Cosimo secured the papal account to add to his expanding network of banks.

As their wealth grew, Cosimo built important alliances and patronages. He used these to control and rule Florence. His main passion was building. Evidence of this can be gathered all around the city of Florence. Brunelleschi’s dome, the basilica of San Lorenzo, the convent of San Marco, Palazzo Medici Riccardi, the Medici chapel in the Basilica of Santa Croce and a chapel at San Miniato were all beneficiaries of Cosimo’s generosity.

Cosimo surrounded himself with the geniuses of the time. Many of the artists and sculptors were assured of commissions but were treated like friends. Cosimo organised an extensive and methodical search for ancient manuscripts. These were brought and stored in his library. Cosimo opened his library and held meetings with great people of powerful minds as they discussed these manuscripts and ideas. This led to the birth of Humanism.

Lorenzo de’ Medici (the magnificent)

Lorenzo de’ Medici was grandson of Cosimo and son of Piero de’ Medici. He followed in his grandfathers’ footsteps. He was also a patron of the arts and letters, a talented poet, a skilled diplomat, and a great ruler. His diplomatic skills brought peace and stability across the Italian city states.

He married into Roman nobility when he married Clarice Orsini. As the banks’ funds were draining up due to poor decisions and lavish spending, he planned for a future by getting his offspring a foothold in the church. Most notable was his son, Giovanni, who would later become Pope Leo X. He survived the Pazzi conspiracy of 1478 when the Pazzi family tried to rule, but his brother Giuliano was murdered in the plot. Giuliano had an illegitimate son, who would later become Pope Clement VII.

Lorenzo’s love of art was confirmed in his court of artists. It was filled with the great names of the 15^th century renaissance. These included Piero, Michelangelo, Pollaiuolo, Verrocchio, da Vinchi, Botticelli, Ghirlandaio and Buonarroti. Evidence of their works are seen all over the city, most notably in the Uffizi Galleries, Galleria dell’ Accademia of Florence and The Bargello Museum.

Lorenzo the Magnificent among humanists and man of letters

Room of Lorenzo de' Medici called the magnificent

Lorenzo the Magnificent receives the tribute of the ambassadors

A gap in Medici Rule of Florence

After Lorenzo’s death in 1492, his son (Piero) would take control of the city. He is often referred to ‘the Unfortunate’ which is unfortunate in itself!! He was ultimately banished from the city after a failure in leadership. This led to a gap in the Medici rule as Niccolo Machiavelli (bust is seen in Palazzo Vecchio and grave in Santa Croce) was appointed senior official in the Republic. Artists would come in search of fame and fortune.

A man called Savonarola, an ascetic Dominican friar, led an uprising amongst the people and effectually created a republic. Savonarola held extreme views and spoke out against the corruption of the clergy and excesses of the Renaissance. This was mainly accomplished from his base in the convent in San Marco (a place yet to be visited in the city).

He encouraged bonfires to be lit to destroy luxuries. The biggest of these took place on 7^th February 1497 known as the bonfire of Vanities. Shortly after this the then current Pope, Alexander V, had him excommunicated. He was tried on charges of sedition and heresy. He was executed in Piazza della Signoria in 1498. He was only 46.

After Savonarola’s execution, Piero Soderini was declared Gonfaloniere of justice for life. I discovered his name in the room of 500 where he had instructed the two famous artists to paint scenes of Florentine history. He fled Florence after the Medici conquest of 1512.

During this time Lorenze’s son Giovanni was a cardinal to Pope Julius II. He used his close connections with the Pope to influence the addition of members of his family into positions of power. This was laid the groundwork for the future generations of the family. In 1513 Giovanni was elected Pope Leo X.

As head of Christendom, Leo X paid little attention to the church!! Strange, but true. Like his father he was more interested in the arts and letters. He drained the Vatican of its funds to support his extravagant patronage of the arts. He was so distracted by his patronage that he failed to pay sufficient attention to an unimportant monk by the name of Martin Luther but that’s another story. There are rooms dedicated to Leo X in Palazzo Vecchio.

Cosimo I de’ Medici (1st Grand duke of Tuscany)

Eventually the first grand duke of Tuscany, Cosimo, firmly restored the power of Medici rule in Florence. There is bold statue of him is the Piazza della Signoria. He became Duke of Florence at the age of 17 after his cousin Alessandro de’ Medici was assassinated. Cosimo was a strong and ambitious leader.

Cosimo reached out to Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor), who in exchange for Cosimo’s help against the French during the Italian wars, gave him the position of head of the Florentine state in 1537. He was elevated to the rank of Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1569 by Pope Pius V. Thus began the Medici hereditary rule that lasted until 1737.

Evidence of his rule is displayed all over the city as shown in previous posts. The decorations in the Palazzo Vecchio, the building of the Uffizi Gallery, Vasari Corridor and the purchase of the Palazzo Pitti.

Cosimo was a military man as well. Further exploration of Tuscany may provide evidence of his battles and what was built in Tuscany to secure the region. In Palazzo Vecchio in the hall of 500 the painting ‘Battle of Marciano’ is one of the 6 battle scenes that adorn the walls. This shows his successful battle over the city of Siena in 1555.

Cosimo married a Spainard, Eleanor of Toledo. Previous posts provide information about their time in the Palazzo Vecchio before they purchased the Palazzo Pitti.

Cosimo’s architect was a certain Giorgio Vasari. Cosimo commissioned Vasari for many projects and pieces of art. Evidence is all around Florence of their work. Frescoes inside the Brunelleschi Dome, the ceiling in the room of 500, remodelling and expansion of Palazzo Pitti are few that I have seen on my meanderings around the city.

Statue of Cosimo de' Medici in Piazza della Signoria

Portrait of Eleonora di Toledo with her son Giovanni

Further Medici rule in Florence

Medici rule continued until 1737 when Gian-Gastone passed away childless. He was the 7^th and final grand duke of the Medici family. Staring in the 16^th century the dates are – Francesco I (1574-1587), Ferdinando I (1587-1609), Cosimo II (1609-1621), Ferdinando II (1621-1670), Cosimo III (1670-1723) & Gian Gastone (1723-1737).

Each generation of the family continued the family’s legacy. Lovers of arts and science they commissioned major pieces of artwork. These were done to show the association between the family, religion and political control. A more detailed visit to the Palatine Gallery in Palazzo Pitti and Uffizi Gallery would show the artworks commissioned and collected.

A visit to the Medici Palace and other museums around the city would show more of the vast collection of art gathered.

During these years patronage was given to astronomer Galileo Galilei whose grave was seen in the Basilica of Santa Croce.

By the time the Medici rule came to an end the duchy was bankrupt.

Anna Maria Luisa de’ Medici, (1667-1743) who was the last in the family dynasty donated the Medici collections to the city of Florence. That was some gift.

Florence after Medici rule

After the rule of the Medici family, Florence was governed by the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty. It was briefly interrupted by Napolean but their time came to an end in 1859. Florence then annexed itself to the new Kingdom of Italy. It was around this time that the facades of Santa Croce and Cathedral of Santa Marie del Fiore were completed. As the new Kingdom of Italy was being formed Florence served as its capital between 1865-1870. Sadly, during these years much of the city was altered. City walls were pulled down as urban expansion took place (walls remain around the edges of Boboli gardens).

German occupation during the later stages of World War II resulted in Ponte Vecchio being saved, mercifully, as all the other bridges were blown up to halt the allied advance.

I have discovered in previous posts how the river caused death and destruction in 1966. A total of over 100 people were killed along with huge amounts of damage to the city’s art. “Angels of Mud” (Angeli del fango) was the name given to the people who came from all over the world to try and save as much of the art as possible.

Florence Conclusions

Florence now is now a popular and a ‘must see’ tourist hotspot. A constant hub of activity as people arrive at the Tuscan capital. Maybe Anna’ de’ Medici didn’t foresee the vast appeal the city and her family’s art collection would have but we’re grateful to her act of kindness in leaving it to the city.

A visit to Florence can be incredible and frustrating at the same time. Is there such a thing as too many tourists? A visit to Michelangelo square at sunset or walking across Ponte Vecchio or general walking the streets will provide the reason for frustration. One wonders if such have discovered anything of the tremendous history of Florence, taken an open mind to artistic endeavours and enjoyed an open-air classroom.

I came to Florence for differing reasons; my knowledge on the city was sadly limited to a TV show. I soon began to realise than I needed to delve into the detail and return to explore this majestic city. Many books have been purchased and read to aid this thirst for knowledge. The result of this has been surprising.

My interest in and admiration of the arts has developed beyond recognition and perhaps set the pathway to future posts. My desire to learn has only been encouraged by my visits to Florence. The fire within burns ever brighter as further tours and visits of the surrounding area and rest of the country are planned. As I’m starting to find out, Tuscany is more than just Florence.

August 3, 2025September 2, 2025

Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence, Italy

The symbol of Florence! Often called the Florence Duomo. But to use its proper name the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. A precursor to renaissance Florence. Brunelleschi’s brilliance. A sublime statement. An architectural achievement. Superb and spectacular. The master of masterpieces. The crowning glory.

Florence was determined to be the leading city in Tuscany; it compared itself to former glory days of Rome. Florence, like other Italian cities (notably in Tuscany) was competing to build the largest, grandest and most impressive cathedral. Florence began work on its cathedral in the 13^th century after Pisa had started its cathedral in 1063 and Siena built its cathedral by around 1260. The Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore took over 140 years to build. The result definitely from the outside is breathtaking, the interior is open for debate. Join me as I explore the incredible Duomo of Florence.

History of Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore

On my meanderings I’ve discovered that during the medieval years much wealth poured into Florence. Trade in wool and an extensive banking system brought untold wealth to the city. As a result, the people of the city thought of themselves in a city similar to ancient Rome. They decided they needed the grandest church in Tuscany, to compete with the cathedrals of Pisa and Siena. At the time population of the city was around 100,000 people, and it was expected that they would all be able to fill the church when completed.

Construction on a new cathedral began on the site of the old cathedral of Santa Reparata in 1296, with the first stone laid on 8^th September. The renowned architect Arnolfo di Cambio was entrusted with plans and building the church. A familiar name from my meanderings around Florence thus far. His other building works I have discovered were the Church at Santa Croce and Palazzo Vecchio. Remember the tower at the Palazzo Vecchio is named after him.

How much of his plan was achieved maybe be minimal. His planned size a small comparison compared to the colossal size it finished. As he died 6 years after he started. Several architects were to continue working on the church after his death. This included Giotto, Talenti, Giovanni Ghini and Brunelleschi.

In the year 1366 a model was created to illustrate the shape and scale of the design. This was not to be altered. This was the plan, and they were going to stick with it. For all the plans made there was a major flaw. They didn’t account for how the Dome would be engineered and constructed. They hoped as time passed this problem would solve itself, through advancements in engineering and building techniques.

In 1418 a competition was opened to find someone who could build the dome. 200 florins was the winner’s reward. The winner was a certain Phillipo Brunelleschi. I will explore his plan in more detail when I cover the Dome later in the post.

When the dome was completed the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore was consecrated by Pope Eugene IV on March 25, 1436.

The outward appearance that is admired today shares a similar tale as Santa Croce in that it wasn’t completed until the 19th century. The façade of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore is a neo-gothic masterpiece. It was designed by De Fabris. If you look closely, you will see that it is adorned by the greatest Tuscan artists. The external walls are covered in white, green and red marble.

Figurine on Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore

The façade of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore

Doors to Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore

Design of Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore

The cathedral of Florence is one of the largest churches in the world. The cathedral is a Latin cross design. The plan consists of a triple nave, where the main central nave is joined with adjacent smaller aisles either side. The aisles are separated from the nave by towering pillars. In this visit I’ve learned that the area between the arches is referred to as bay. The bays here are larger than normal, which creates a much more open feel to the nave.

The designers didn’t want the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore to be similar to the cathedrals of the north, most notably in France and Germany. The Cathedrals in the north focused more on their vertical elements where Florence’s Santa Maris del Fiore placed an emphasis on horizontal elements.

Like all other churches and cathedrals, the nave stretches from the entrance (at the bottom of the cross) to centre of the cross. The High altar is located at the centre of the cross. To the north, south and east of the high altar is an arrangement of three apses. Each of the apses has 5 chapels. The design when looking from above was to suggest the form of a flower. With more time, I would explore possible links between the name of the cathedral (Our Lady of the Flower), with the city’s coat of arms (its emblem the Florentine lily) and the city’s name (“Florentia”, that is, “city of flowers”).

The inside of the cathedral I found to be a very dull affair, which is perhaps why I’m lacking in photos of the interior. There is a distinct lack of windows in comparison to other cathedrals visited here in the UK and the rest of Europe. I must admit that the sheer size of the nave is incredible to see. Thankfully I had booked tickets to the visit the Dome which would provide the best view of the fresco painted on the ceiling.

Saint James the Greater by Jacopo Sansovino

Brunelleschi’s Dome

The Done was built between 1420 and 1436. In the competition to find a suitable designer, Phillips Brunelleschi beat his longtime rival, Lorenzo Gilberti.

Lorenzo had beaten Phillipo in a previous competition to build the bronze doors for the baptistry. Brunelleschi was named the chief architect (capomaestro) in 1420 and would hold that position until his death in 1446.

Brunelleschi was a sculptor and architect who had left Florence after his aforementioned defeat in competition to Gilberti. He decided to explore and survey Rome. Here he gathered ideas and drew inspiration from Rome’s ancient buildings. In particular the Roman Pantheon provided him with the knowledge and ideas to succeed with his dome.

Brunelleschi’s design was a double-shell dome. The two domes working together but with separate purposes. The outer shell covered in terracotta tiles, would protect the inner shell from the elements whilst the inner shell would be used to support the outer shell. The inner shell spans the diameter and is self-supporting. He would use a unique brick pattern on the inner dome referred to as herringbone pattern.

Brunelleschi used a series of compression rings around the inner dome’s circumference. These were to stop the dome from collapsing. The gap between the two domes would act as a stairwell to the top. At the top of the dome is Brunelleschi’s lantern. This was another competition that he won though the lantern was not built until after his death. The 463 steps to the top are worth it for the panoramic views gained over the city of Florence.

Brunelleschi had to think on his feet during the construction process. The challenges must have been relentless. A masterful piece of work and engineering genius. It’s beyond impressive.

When climbing the stairs to the top of the dome, rest maybe taken at internal balcony. Here you can admire the ‘Last judgement’, a fresco painted on the inside of the internal dome. Cosimo and Vasari combine yet again for another incredible piece of Art. It was started in 1572. Completed at first by Giorgio Vasari (died in 1574 the same year as Cosimo) and finished by Federico Zuccari in 1579.

At 3,600 square metres the completed fresco represents one of the largest paintings in the world. Vasari worked with Cosimo’s literary and theological adviser Vincenzo Borghini. With around 700 figures used in the painting trying to understand its meaning would take some time that is unavailable as you must be at the top of the dome in a certain time.

It really is something to admire and admire you should. I was so taken back that I ignored the stained-glass windows at this level. There are eight drum windows, by Donatello, Ghiberti, Andrea del Castagno and Paolo Uccello.

Campanile di Giotto

The Italian lesson continues as I learn than Campanile means bell tower. Giotto is the name of the famous 13th century painter, whose artwork I discovered in the church at Santa Croce. Giotto began work on the tower in 1334, and just like Arnolfo di Cambio he died before he could finish the tower in 1337. The tower was completed in 1359 after Andrea Pisano and Francesco Talenti had continued the construction.

Giotto’s bell tower stands 85m high on a square 15m base. Giotto planned for the tower to be 115m in height but ultimately it was to fall short. 414 steps will get you to the top of the tower which provides a different perspective of the cathedral and another view of the city. The tower is a masterpiece of Italian Gothic architecture. A theme I’m starting to pick up when visiting churches and cathedrals around Italy has been the separation of a tower to house the bells.

Conclusions

Towering above the buildings of Florence the imposing Cathedral of Florence can’t be missed. Such a dominating structure draws the attention of all visitors to the city. Brunelleschi’s dome really is something to behold. It defies logic. I can’t recall a city where a building dominates its skyline as much as this cathedral. It really is the central focus.

My visit has provided me with an enhanced appreciation of cathedrals. I’m still dumbfounded at how they managed to build them. I continue to pick up the odd Italian word here and there to boost my meagre knowledge of the local language along with increased fascination of the arts. A visit to Florence Cathedral allows you to see some of the great work completed by so many famous names.

The visit has given fresh zeal to visit some more cathedrals. In order to see what the competition was, visits to cathedrals at Pisa and Siena are necessary along with some further afield that are larger than Florence cathedral. These include the Basilica of St. Peter in Vatican City, St. Paul’s Cathedral in London, the Cathedral of Seville and the Cathedral of Milan.

July 27, 2025September 13, 2025

Uffizi Gallery, Art Museum in Florence, City in Italy

The world-renowned Uffizi Gallery is home to an extensive collection of art, ancient statues and historical artefacts. Throw in names like Vasari, Leonardo, Raphael, Caravaggio, Michelangelo, and Botticelli and it is easy to see why it ranks so highly in Italy’s attractions, coming second only to the Colosseum in Rome each year.

Construction of the Uffizi Gallery was commissioned in 1560. Although the art draws you in, I’m equally fascinated by its origins and links to the Medici family. These links are perhaps unknown to many but provide a level of intrigue. Join me as I explore its origins and the vast and expansive collection of art.

Uffizi origins

I doubt many know that the Uffizi Gallery they visit today wasn’t built to display art. In 1560 the first Grand Duke of Tuscany (Cosimo I) commissioned the building of the “Uffizi”. Its original purpose was to house the administrative and judiciary offices of Florence.

My Italian lessons continue as I find out that “Uffizi” means offices. Cosimo commissioned his favourite architect (Vasari – remember the rooms in Palazzo Vecchio, the rebuild of Palazzo Pitti and the Vasari corridor) to design them.

To build these new offices, space was needed for the huge complex. Local buildings were pulled down which included the ancient and Romanesque church, San Pier Scheraggio. After Vasari’s death in 1574 the offices were completed in 1581 by architects Buontalenti and Parigi.

Cosimo also instructed that a corridor be built linking the offices and his new residence at Palazzo Pitti. In the post regarding Ponte Vecchio, I discovered that the corridor was named after the man who constructed it – the Vasari corridor.

The corridor took just 5 months to complete and was built to celebrate the marriage between Cosimo’s son Francesco to Giovanna d’Austria in 1565. When visiting the Palazzo Vecchio, you’ll discover that the courtyard behind the main entrance was refurbished by Vasari and decorated in time for their nuptials.

Francesco (Cosimo’s eldest son) was to become the next Duke of Tuscany after his father. He ruled the grand duchy from 1574 until his death in 1587. It was Francesco who decided to set up a private gallery within the Uffizi. This was to house the vastly expanding collection of statues and other precious objects belonging to the Medici family.

The location chosen was the top floor of the east wing. The main room of this private area was the octagonal room called the Tribuna, built by Bernardo Buontalenti in 1584. The stunning room is adorned with thousands of shells on the inside of the dome.

“Uffizi” a museum

Florence is so rich in art, and this is due to one person. This is because the last remaining member of the Medici family, Anna Maria Luisa de’ Medici (sister to the last male Medici Gian Gastone), signed the ‘family pact’. This was an agreement that was made with the new ruling family of Tuscany the Habsburg-Lorraine.

Anna was forward thinking; she saw the value in the art but wondered how it could attract the curiosity of foreigners. You might say she saw the future for the whole of Florence. Her stipulation in the pact was that the art and treasure collected by her family over the centuries should remain in Florence.

It was 16 years after her death that doors of the offices/gallery were opened to the public viewing under the instruction of Grand Duke Peter Leopold. So out of the original administrative offices was born the Uffizi Gallery Museum.

Adoration of the Child and archangel Gabriel

The Uffizi Gallery

Walking around the gallery is a breathtaking experience. I was immediately blown away by the incredible number of statues from Roman times. There are portraits of Agrippa, Nero, Antoninus Pius, Septimius Severus & Marcus Aurelius, to name a few. You could be easily confused, thinking you were in Rome and not Florence.

Whenever one visits a grand building, it is advisable to look up. The beautifully painted ceilings in the corridor of statues add to the majestic atmosphere. At the tops of the walls before the beautiful ceiling there is a fascinating collection of portraits. Some of the portraits look recognisable. Names on the portraits are in Italian. My Italian being non-existent, I would take a guess that some of the kings of England are on display.

The hordes kept piling in. Taking time to appreciate the display of paintings and statues was not easy nor, in the end, was it particularly enjoyable. I’m not sure when the best time would be to visit. I was sufficed with picking out bits of art and rooms that seemed to be ignored.

My fascination with the Medici family continued as I came across two portraits of the famous original members of the family – Cosimo the elder & Lorenzo the magnificent. Another name that has been discovered in these travels was Eleonora of Toledo. She also features in another painting.

Vasari Corridor

The Vasari corridor reopened at the end of 2024 after an 8-year closure. Access to the corridor is through the Gallery of Statues and Paintings. Tickets must be pre-purchased. To walk the corridor is a brilliant opportunity to follow the footsteps of the Medici family. Though bland internally it provides fascinating insight into history and unique viewing points of the city. It is approximately 750m long. The end of the corridor brings you out next to the Grand Gotto in the Boboli Gardens.

Uffizi Gallery Conclusions

Without doubt the Uffizi Gallery is a must see when visiting Florence. Though the rooms and corridors that house the art are impressive they are made so by the art that adorns them. A debate about the most impressive rooms in Florence would include mention of Palazzo Vecchio and Pitti Palace. Those in Uffizi may not be as high on the list.

That said, the collection of ancient statues is incredibly fascinating. It whetted the appetite to delve into Rome and Roman history.

The Cosimo and Vasari combine again to deliver a symbol of Florence. Though not their original plans I think everyone who visits fully appreciates the work.

So, the Uffizi can be put on a list of the great art museums around the world. The Vatican, the Louvre, the Rijksmuseum, the MET & the National Gallery, etc. could all lay claim to being the best art gallery. I will leave that debate for another day, or another post.

July 13, 2025September 17, 2025

Ponte Vecchio, Historical Landmark, City of Florence, Italy

Ponte Vecchio is one of the most iconic symbols of Florence. The beautiful bridge is translated to ‘Old Bridge’, but at times may have been referred to as ‘Florence’s bridge of Gold’. Overflowing with character, beautiful to view, etched in history and with a whiff of romance in the air, it draws the inevitable crowd.

My journey through Florence has taken me to churches, art galleries, restaurants and palaces. In my recent visit to Palazzo Vecchio, I learned, and you may recall, that ‘Vecchio’ means Old. A quick search immediately informs me that ‘Ponte’ means bridge.

Ponte Vecchio embodies the spirit of Florence. Its beauty, architecture, resistance, history, character and secret passage will all be explored in this blog.

Ponte Vecchio history

Ponte Vecchio crosses over the narrowest point of the River Arno. The River Arno is the largest river in the region and second most important river in central Italy after the Tiber. It runs from its source in the mountains close to the Tuscan and Emilia-Romagna border. The Arno flows across Tuscany to the Ligurian Sea at Pisa.

The Arno River, whilst I have always seen it looking peaceful in Florence, has an historic aggressive side to it. The river destroyed the original bridges when it burst its banks in 1333. That resulted in a new bridge being commissioned. The bridge took 5 years to be built and was completed in 1345. The bridge is an outstanding engineering achievement confirmed in that it still stands to this day.

Over the centuries Ponte Vecchio became a desirable meeting point, a place that has constantly evolved. Shops were constructed on the bridge to accommodate butchers, tanners, fish mongers, leather artisans, jewelers who plied their trade on the bridge which has always bustled with people.

The powerful Medici family has left evidence of its presence all over the city. Ponte Vecchio is no exception. I will explore this further in the blog, but Cosimo 1^st instructed his architect to build a “secret passage” that connected Palazzo Vecchio with Palazzo Pitti.

During World War II, when the German army was retreating from the British Army, Ponte Vecchio was not destroyed unlike all the other bridges in Florence. Rumours are that Hitler himself gave orders that the bridge was not to be destroyed. Instead, the buildings at each end of Ponte Vecchio were destroyed to halt the British advance.

In 1966 the Arno overflowed its banks. This tragic event killed over a hundred people and did so much damage and destruction to the city. Incredibly the bridge survived to tell another tale, so to speak, having been completely (shops as well) submerged under torrents of water.

Today Ponte Vecchio is now a must see for all visitors. The bridge is always packed with crowds. Romance sometimes feels in the air. It is a perfect spot to enjoy views of the River Arno and the City of Florence. Good are on sale in the shops. Although the gold trade may have diminished the sale of jewellery continues.

Ponte Vecchio Architecture

Taddeo Gaddi (a pupil of Giotto), it is believed, was designer and builder of Ponte Vecchio. Ponte Vecchio consists of 3 shallow segmental arches, a breakaway in design from the classical Roman bridge design.

The middle of the three arches is the largest with a 30m span and the arches either side spanning 27m. The 14^th century bridge is constructed out of stone. There are two islands in the middle of the bridge to support the arches. My research and studies teach me that these islands are often referred to as piers. They are connected to the riverbed by oak piles then surrounded by concrete and stone. The two piers feature triangular prows which assist in deflecting the river’s flow.

The bridge soon became the location of a medieval marketplace. One can imagine the frenzy on the bridge as ‘wheeling and dealing’ took place.

A byproduct of the marketplace was the smell of the goods sold there! Grand Duke Ferdinando I de’ Medici (1587-1609) was not happy with it and took merciless action. He sent the vendors away and instructed that the only shops allowed were goldsmiths and jewellers. Thus, the appellation ‘the bridge of gold’ was born. 48 shops grace the bridge. Trade is still common practice to this day, but only gold and jewellery are permitted there.

My research has also highlighted that the design of Ponte Vecchio may have inspired the ‘Pultney Bridge in Bath, England. Surely a reason to revisit Bath and explore the similarities. Both bridges just mentioned are part of 4 in the world that have shops across its full span on both sides (the other two being in Venice – Italy and Erfurt – Germany).

Benvenuto Cellini

Benvenuto Cellini was a 16^th century artist who started his career as a goldsmith and is honoured with a bronze bust sitting on a fountain in the middle of the bridge. Someone else I never knew existed! This educational journey makes that short lived.

An internet search informs me who he was. Not much of his work survives, which is perhaps why he is a little less known. He was a creator of a couple of famous pieces – the first one is a magnificent gold salt cellar made for Francis I of France, now in Vienna. Can’t remember seeing that in my visit.

The second is one that I have seen in Florence. This is the bronze statue of Perseus holding the head of Medusa. It now stands in the Loggia dei Lanzi which is very visible in the south corner of Piazza Signoria close to the entrance of Palazzo Vecchio.

Looking at Benvenuto Cellini and the River Arno

Vasari Corridor

The most eye-catching modification to the bridge came in the sixteenth century. Cosimo I de’ Medici instructed Giorgio Vasari to construct a corridor connecting Palazzo Vecchio and Uffizi Gallery with the Palazzo Pitti.

This corridor provided Cosimo and his successors (and their families) private access between their private residence (Pitti) and the city’s government building (Vecchio). The corridor was filled with paintings and busts of significant figures from Florentine history. This was done to show status, wealth and power.

The corridor recently opened after refurbishment and is very bland and empty, which is in stark contrast to Cosimo’s Walk. Access to the corridor is gained through the Uffizi Gallery.

View of Ponte Vecchio from Vasari Corridor

Conclusions

In conclusion Ponte Vecchio cannot be missed on a visit to Florence. Not many do miss it as it is always crowded with tourists. I prefer to view the bridge from different points around the city.

I found the Vasari corridor intriguing. How many know about the ‘secret passage’, I’m not sure.

Ponte Vecchio has played an important role in the history of the city, providing a path over the River Arno. The famous bridge has evolved over time, from a thriving marketplace to a refined, gold trading outlet.

It has withstood the power of nature and survived the bleak periods in the history of Florence. I’m sure it would have many stories to tell. My preference is viewing it from afar. Everybody flocks to Piazzale Michelangelo for a view of the bridge and city. The views here are stunning but I prefer to find a less crowded viewpoint.

My favourite so far has been in a nearby restaurant with an outside seating area overlooking the river. As I sip on some wine, the sun beats down and the bridge displays a kaleidoscope of colour. The golden moment is beautifully reflected in the peaceful Arno beneath. I ponder the need to revisit Bath to view a similar example. Then I consider if Ponte Vecchio is up there with some of the great bridges around the world. Maybe a different type of blog to write in the future.

July 6, 2025September 13, 2025

Palazzo Pitti, Art Museum, Palace in Florence, Italy

Following the visit to Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, Italy I looked to increase my Florentine knowledge. I headed off across the River Arno to Palazzo Pitti. My reasons for visiting were simple. At Palazzo Vecchio I learnt lots about the Medici family and was keen to expand my knowledge of the Medici family.

I must confess that my original discovery of the Medici family came from watching a TV series. The series certainly provided inspiration to visit and explore Florence but exposed major gaps in my knowledge of European history. The series focused on the first line of the Medicis in the 15^th century. The Medici family ruled Florence and, later, Tuscany from 1434 to 1737 (apart from two brief intervals). I have drawn a family tree to help with my learnings.

The TV series covers the establishment of the family dynasty in Florence, which left me with an impression that they came to an end after Lorenzo the Magnificent. How wrong could I have been?

It was with my ‘tail between my legs’ that I visited the Palazzo Pitti to enhance this knowledge. The Palazzo Pitti resides on the southern side of the Arno River. It feels slightly detached being away from the city centre. It is located at the foot of the Boboli hills. Read on as I try to explore the largest palace in Florence. As well as continuing my journey to find more about the Medici’s. Included in all this was a visit to the renowned Boboli gardens.

Palazzo Pitti History

The Palazzo Pitti , to this day, is named after its first owner Luca Pitti. There is much myth and mystery surrounding the construction of the original building. No records have been found. Rumours are that the original architect was Brunelleschi. Perhaps it was his pupil, Luca Fancelli, who should take the credit for its designs.

Luca Pitti was an ambitious Florentine merchant who supported Cosimo de’ Medici (the elder) in his government. This brought him much wealth, prosperity and influence. He commissioned a new personal residence, which was to rival the glory of the Medici palazzo. There was rivalry between Pitti and the Medici family. Pitti wanted to become the most powerful man in Florence. Luca saw his opportunity when Cosimo passed away. He was unsuccessful in a coup to murder and overthrow Cosimo’s son Piero. Luca Pitti was pardoned by Piero (almost unbelievable) after his failed coup and before he died in 1473, 9 years after Cosimo. The building remained unfinished but still in the Pitti family. The Pitti family no longer reaped the rewards of their close association with Cosimo, ran into financial difficulties and had to sell.

As I found out at Vecchio Palace, Eleonara di Toledo purchased the Palazzo Pitti in 1549. Her husband was Cosimo I de Medici. The palace was purchased as a family home as they were struggling with living in the Vecchio Palace along with their 8 children. Cosimo instructed his architect Vasari to enlarge the building, making it worthy of a Ducal Palace. This included a programme of renovations and modifications. Cosimo’s second son, Duke Ferdinando I, and his wife were the first ones to live within the palace. Their son Cosimo II married Maria Magdalena of Austria. She brought a vast collection of art with her as part of her dowry. This was a great addition to the Medici collection. Cosimo II also regularly purchased art from Rome. It was clear that each Duke from the Medici line followed the previous incumbent as the collection grew. The paintings were stored in different parts of the palace. At the same time the grounds and gardens were enlarged.

The Medici line came to an end in 1737 (see above). At Palazzo Pitti I discovered that the Medici title ‘Grand Dukes of Tuscany’, passed to the second dynasty to live in the palace, that of the Austrian House of Habsburg-Lorraine. Their occupation of Palazzo Pitti was disturbed for a few years by Elisa Bonaparte taking possession after the French invasion. After the fall of Napolean, the Vienna congress returned the palace back to the Habsburg-Lorraine family. The family continued the renovation of the palace. They also organised the vast art collection. Like their predecessors’ passion, they continued collecting art whilst commissioning more pieces of art and décor throughout the palace. It was this family that opened the palace as an art gallery..

As the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty came to an end in 1860, so did the Grand Duchy of Tuscany shortly after. Tuscany came under the control of the House of Savoy, the third and final dynasty to live in the palace. It was at this time that Tuscany became one of the provinces of the Kingdon of Italy, during the Risorgimento (unification of Italy). King Vittorio Emanuele II resided in Pitti Palace when Florence was the capital of Italy. The family were overthrown in 1946 as Italy became a republic. Their legacy of the Palace was made in 1919 Vittorio Emanuele III donated the Palace to the Italian state.

Palatine Gallery at Palazzo Pitti

The Palatine Gallery is one of several museum complexes within the Palazzo Pitti . Opened in 1834, it is breathtakingly beautiful! Each room is a treasure trove full to the brim of artistic wealth. This is an endeavour of love, captivating in appearance, meticulously preserved, with plush furnishings, extravagant chandeliers and spectacular ceilings with stunning frescoes. A walk through the gallery is mind boggling leaves the visitor spell bound. An appreciation of the talent on display should be the focus. The incredible collection includes priceless works by Titian, Tintoretto, Caravaggio and Rubens. The gallery is also home to the largest concentration of paintings by Raphael in the world.

Sadly, the vast size of the palace, and not fully knowing my way around, I think I left my visit to the Palatine Gallery. Travesty I know, but proof that I needed more time than I ever thought to explore this palace. The other areas in the palace that I missed included the Royal Apartments, Tapestry apartments, Modern Art Gallery, Fiorino room, Winter Apartments and the museum of costume and fashion. Reasons enough to visit again.

Boboli Gardens

The gardens really are something to behold. As I quickly found out they’re not a whistle stop destination but a vast open-air museum. It requires more time than I thought, firstly to see it all and secondly to truly appreciate its peaceful tranquility.

The Boboli Gardens share a similar path of history to Palazzo Pitti . When Eleonora and Cosimo purchased Palazzo Pitti not only did they start works on the palace but the gardens as well. The first plans were designed by Niccolò Tribolo who sadly never saw the works completed before his death. The honour fell on the famous Giorgio Vasari, who along with Ammannati and Buontalenti completed the initial plans. Not only did other generations of the Medici enlarge and enrich the gardens but so too did the Habsburg-Lorraine and Savoy dynasties add to it.

The Boboli gardens are populated with countless ancient and renaissance statues, large fountains, tree lined avenues and grottos. The garden provides endless opportunities for exploration and enjoyment. Palazzo Pitti looks much better from the gardens side than its ugly front entrance.

The first part of the garden is the amphitheatre which not only provides a view of the rear of the palace but is decorated with statues around the outer edges. Leading up from the amphitheatre you climb several steps as you pass the Forcone Basin and several of the statues scattered around the grounds. At the top of hill, you will see the colossal statue of Plenty, moved to its current location to represent the prosperity of the Tuscan state. Work began in 1608 by Giambologna and completed by Pietro Tacca and Sebastiano Salvini in 1637. Also slightly hidden at the top of the hill is ‘The Knights Garden’ which offers an enchanting view of the local Tuscan hills.

From here navigate your way back down to pick up Cypress Lane, a large path running through the heart of the gardens. It is lined each side with cypress trees and has statues placed at the crossroads as other paths connect to Cypress Lane. If you don’t divert off the avenue to explore these gardens the long downhill path will lead you to the ‘Island Pond’ and beyond this is the Meadow of Columns.

After retracing my steps back to the palace, I find the ‘Buontalenti Grotto’ also known as the ‘Grand Grotto’. On the façade, the Medici coat of arms is supported by two mosaic feminine figures who symbolize Peace and Justice. The lower part of the façade was built by Vasari. In the main it was built by Bernardo Buontalenti between 1583 and 1593 on behalf of Francesco I de’ Medici. The Grotto is a masterpiece of Florentine Mannerist style and is divided into 3 sections. The first section was frescoed and combined with stucco work showing shepherds protecting their flocks from wild beasts. Also, in this first section you will see copies of the 4 “Prisoners” by Michelangelo (the originals have been moved). The other 2 sections that follow exhibit the sculptures “Bathing Venus” of Giambologna and the group of “Paris and Hellen” of Vincenzo de Rossi.

Valerie Cioli, Dwarf Morgante, white marble, 1560

Palazzo Pitti Conclusions

Thus concludes my visit to the Palazzo Pitti , It is an extraordinary palace to visit. It is a palace to rival some of the great European palaces. Its outward appearance is not very alluring, bland and rather dull, especially from the front. What lies behind the grand façade is anything but.

My short visit was not enough. I must return to Palazzo Pitti and ensure that I visit all that it has to offer including more of the Palatine Gallery. The gardens also require further and more in-depth exploration.

I leave the palace overloaded with knowledge and a newfound appreciation for art and decor. I’m sure everyone has heard of Florence but the city is proving to be fascinating. Each place I have visited has been captivating. The next stop on my meandering around this great city is to one of the most famous bridges in the world.

June 29, 2025September 13, 2025

Palazzo Vecchio, Town Hall in Florence, Italy

The next stop on my meanderings around Florence is a visit to the Palazzo Vecchio which is located right in the middle of the city on the edge of Piazza Signoria. The piazza and palace are emblematic of the city. The Palazzo Vecchio has been the seat of the city’s power and strength throughout history. The palace’s cube shape design and outward appearance expresses power, strength & might in stark contrast to the stunning and detailed rooms that adorn the interior and exude class. The whole palace possesses an air of importance and an aura of historic fascination. Join me as I explore the Palazzo Vecchio and learn about the heart of the city with its civic emblem before finishing my visit with a climb of the Torre di Arnolfo, which gives beautiful views of the city skyline.

History of Palazzo Vecchio

Construction of Palazzo Vecchio started in 1299 when the people of Florence decided to build a palace worthy of the city’s importance, to provide a secure and defensible retreat, and to house the government organisations of the republic. Arnolfo di Cambio, who also built the church at Santa Croce, set about building the palace upon the ruins of Palazzo dei Fanti and Palazzo dell’Esecutore di Giustizia.

The government of Florence at the time constituted 8 elected priors who represented different trade guilds. The palace at this time was called Palazzo dei Priori (Palace of priors). In the next century the palace changed names as the form of government changed to become the Palazzo Della Signoria as it was then called after one man known as the Senior de Firenze.

The cubical building is made of solid rusticated stonework with two levels of windows high above the piazza. The crenelated battlements sit like a crown on top of the building and are supported by corbels (a structural piece of stone or wood that is weight bearing). The tower looks lonely as it stands above the structure below.

In 1540, Duke Cosimo I decided to show the power of the Medici by moving from the family palace into the Palazzo della Signoria. As a result Cosimo set about restructuring and decorating the palace into his family’s residence. The major remodelling and artwork was undertaken by Giorgio Visari, a name that cropped up on my visit to Santa Croce.

The Medici believed in beauty as a privileged means of communication. Walls and ceilings were decorated with stories of divinities, heroes and heroines of Greek mythology who fight for the freedom of their people. As a result, and I assume because of Cosimo’s position and title of duke, the palace changed names from its origins as Palazzo della Signoria to the Palazzo Ducale.

The new residential rooms were mainly used for Cosimo and his wife Eleonora of Toledo and their children. In 1549 Eleonora purchased Pitti Palace on the other side of the Arno River. My reading and research haven’t confirmed if Cosimo and Eleonora ever moved in officially into Pitti Palace. After purchasing what was a house, they started works on building it into a grand Ducale Palace. As my tour of Florence continues, I will learn about how the two palaces were connected by a secret passage. In this transitional period, Cosimo referred to and named the former Palazzo Ducale as Palazzo Vecchio, “the Old Palace” and maintained the Pitti Palace name.

The Medici family ruled Florence and Tuscany till 1737. After the Medici line ended, Florence and Tuscany passed into the hands of the Austrian crown. In 1861 decisions were made to join the united kingdom of Italy. In 1865 through to 1871 the ‘Old Palace’ gained new importance as the seat of united Italy’s provisional government as Florence was temporarily the capital of Italy. Palazzo Vecchio is now a museum but since its brief stint as home to the Italian government, it now houses the mayor of Florence.

Entrance and Courtyards of Palazzo Vecchio

The gateway to the Palazzo Vecchio is easily recognisable from holiday brochures on any visit to Florence. Replicas of Michelangelo’s gigantic ‘David’ and Bandinelli’s ‘Hercules’ stand at the steps leading to the palace and are likewise easily recognised. Behind them and closer to the entrance of the Palazzo Vecchio are two smaller statues, the two Herms, also by Bandinelli. Above the door is the 1528 frontispiece which is flanked by two gilded lions (known as the Marzocco Lion – the animal represents the free republic of Florence). In the centre is written “Rex Regum et Dominus Dominantium” which translates to “King of Kings and Lord of Lords”.

It is free to walk into the courtyards and if you don’t want to stump up the money to visit, the courtyard alone is worth the ‘free’ entry. The courtyard was designed by Michelozzo in 1453 and decorated by Vasari 1556. Cosimo I asked Vasari to make the space more spectacular for the wedding of his son Francesco I de’ Medici to Giovanna of Austria. Painted on the walls are cities of the Habsburg Empire.

The stucco work on the courtyard columns was entrusted to Pier Paolo Minoccio da Forlì. At the centre of the courtyard is a fountain designed by Vasari to replace the old well. The bronze statue is a replica statue of ‘Putto with dolphin’ by Andrea del Verrocchio. The original was built in 1470 and was placed on the fountain in1557. The original was removed and stored in the palace in in 1959.

Replica of Michelangelo’s gigantic ‘David’

Sala dei Cinquecento – The Hall of the five hundred

On the first floor is the largest and most important room in the palace. It is full to the brim of art with historic value. The room’s history began as a meeting place for the ‘Great Council’ before Giorgio Vasari was entrusted to dramatically and radically transform it.

When the Medici family were temporarily driven out of the city of Florence, shortly after the death of Lorenzo de’ Medici ‘The magnificent’, Girolamo Savonarola managed to rule over Florence. A lot will be learned about this man with a visit to San Marco in Florence (another time and another blog). Savonarola introduced a democratic government on the city known as the Council of Five Hundred. In setting up his new form of government and setting certain criteria, he found more than a thousand people were eligible. Therefore, it was decided to create a room allowing five hundred people to attend meetings and be involved in government decisions. This first room was built in 1494 by Simone del Pollaiuolo and Francesco Domenico and commissioned by Girolamo Savonarola.

Savonarola didn’t last too long, as he was arrested in 1498, hanged and burned at the stake in the Piazza della Signoria. Power was passed to Piero Soderini, who decided to decorate the room. He reached out to two of Florence’s greatest artists at the time, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo Buonarroti to construct two murals celebrating victories of the republic (the battle of Anghiari and Cascina). Leonardo experimented, with disastrous effects, with an encaustic technique. Michelangelo was called to Rome by Pope Julius II meaning their works were never finished.

In the 1540’s when Duke Cosimo returned to power and moved the family home into the palace, he decided to transform the Salone dei Cinquecento into an audience room where he could greet people and receive ambassadors. He entrusted Giorgio Vasari with the renovations and designs. Vasari decided to raise the ceiling (by roughly 7m) to accentuate the grandeur of the hall and install a decorated, coffered ceiling to exalt and glorify the Medici family.

The coffered ceiling is made up of 42 individual panels with Duke Cosimo depicted in the centre. Vasari co-ordinated a team of painters which included Giovanni Stradano, Tommaso di Battista del Verrocchio, Ridolfo del Ghirlandaio and many others. The works started in 1542 and ended in 1571.

On the walls are six scenes of battles that represent the military success of Cosimo I against Pisa and Siena. On the eastern side, is the Conquest of Siena, the Conquest of Porto Ercole, and the Battle of Marciano. On the western side, the defeat of the Pisans at the tower of San Vincenzo, Maximilian of Austria attempting the conquest of Livorno, and Pisa attacked by the Florentine troops. Breathtaking in size and detail, this is art that I truly appreciate.

At the northern end of the hall is a raised area known as the Tribuna dell’Udienza. This raised area was designed to accommodate the throne of the duke. It was built by Giuliano di Baccio d’Agnolo and Bartolommeo Bandinelli. The architecture was inspired by a Roman triumphal arch to enhance the power of the sovereign. There are several statues of differing members of the Medici family.

Western side of the Sala dei Cinquecento.

Entering the gallery on the second floor

Capture of the Fort near the Porta Camollia

The spectacular view of the Sala dei Cinquecento.

The ceiling of the Sala dei Cinquecento.

Medici family rooms

After leaving the Salone dei Cinquecento one passes through several rooms on the first floor. Each room visited has been dedicated to a personality of the Medici family. The first room is dedicated to Cosimo de’ Medici called the Elder. He was the first powerful Medici, and set in place many building projects, most notably the dome of the Duomo. In his room the paintings depict moments of his life including ‘his return from exile’, and a painting with the architects Brunelleschi and Ghiberti showing Cosimo a model for the Basilica of San Lorenzo.

The next room is dedicated to his grandson, Lorenzo, called the Magnificent. His father (Piero) was a man of poor health, and it was Lorenzo who took on the legacy of his grandfather (Cosimo). A man of political acumen, this led to him holding a powerful sway over not only over Florence but Italy. This is displayed in the paintings as often Lorenzo is shown talking with philosophers and ambassadors. I found it interesting to notice a giraffe in one of the paintings, which supposedly was a gift from the visiting Sultan of Cairo.

The final room to visit on this floor is the room of Leo X, a pope. Giovanni de’ Medici was the son of Lorenzo the Magnificent and became a cardinal at the age of 13 before being elected to the papacy in 1513. He was the Medici’s first pope, and he laid much of the groundwork for the future Medici duchy of Tuscany. The paintings here show his triumphal return to Florence, and close inspection shows the David statue in one the paintings.

Second floor of Palazzo Vecchio

On the second floor are found the rooms of elements, the Ducal apartments, the apartments of Eleonora of Toledo (wife of Cosimo I), a small chapel decorated by Bronzino, Chancellery and the hall of Geographical maps.

When moving between the rooms on this floor, you get the chance to walk along a gallery which gives a spectacular view of the Sala dei Cinquecento. In the elements rooms you will find frescoes which include ‘The birth of Venus’, ‘Vulcan’s Forge’ and ‘Saturn receiving gifts of Earth’.

The tour then heads through the ducal apartments which includes the apartments of Eleonora. Eleonora and Cosimo had 11 children so required several bedrooms for them to sleep. The tour of the second-floor finishes in the chancellery and the hall of Geographical maps.

In the chancellery you will see a bust of Niccolo Machiavelli in painted stucco. You’ll remember that he had his tomb in the Basilica at Santa Croce. The hall of Geographical maps is a fascinating room full of maps of the known world. On the ceiling were meant to be the forty-eight celestial constellations.

Saturn recieving the gifts of the Earth - Room of the Elements

The birth of Venus - Room of the Elements

Map of Great Britain taken from Hall of Geographical Maps

Map of Italy taken from Hall of Geographical Maps

Torre d’Arnolfo

The unmistakable tower, 95m in height was named after the original architect Arnolfo di Cambio. The tower was part of the city’s defence system as it provided a view over the city and surrounding area. The view over the city was particularly important as the government was able to monitor the heights of Florentine houses, ensuring that they didn’t exceed a permitted height.

When looking at the palace from the piazza, you will notice that the tower is not in a central location. Arnolfo used the former Foraboschi family tower as the substructure to build the tower seen today.

At the top of the tower, you will find a prison cell where both Cosimo de’ Medici (in 1435), and Girolamo Savonarola (in 1498) were imprisoned. The latter was taken from this cell and executed in the piazza below. The one-handed clock in the tower was originally constructed in 1353 by Nicolo Bernarado before being replaced in 1667 with a replica installed by Vincenzo Viviani and made by Georg Lederle from Augsburg.

In Conclusion

A visit to Palazzo Vecchio has been an enjoyable and thoroughly educational visit. Knowledge has been gathered about the history of the city and the forms of government that ruled over the city at differing points throughout history. It also provided an insight into the famous family of Florence, the Medicis.

The visit built on the first learnings made to Santa Croce as two names that have links to both, seems to have started a theme. Arnolfo di Cambio is a name that perhaps is not associated with Florence or history itself but it is becoming apparent that he was the founding father of the city’s iconic architecture. The other name, Giorgio Vasari, it would appear, has probably left as much of an influence on the city as the so-called famous artists of Florence.

Before exploring Florence, I had watched the Medici TV series. This had limited my knowledge to only the first half of the Medici family (the Elder). My visit here opened my eyes to the second half of the Medici family (the grand dukes) and showed the legacy that they created and the results it left behind.

Throughout all this education, it was interesting to find out about the brief interruption in Medici rule which has now inspired a visit to Basilica San Marco to learn about Girolamo Savonarola along with visits to the Church of San Lorenzo (Medici church and tombs) and Medici Palace Riccardi.

My next stop though is to visit Cosimo’s and Eleonora new home (Pitti Palace) after their short stay here in Vecchio Palace.

June 22, 2025September 13, 2025

Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence, Minor basilica in Florence, Italy

In the heart of Florence and at the eastern end of the Piazza Santa Croce, stands the impressive Basilica of Santa Croce. A tall, elegant and grand church which on first impressions immediately appeals to my inquisitive mind. The church was built on former marsh lands that were outside the old city walls in what was often referred to as the poor part of the city. Santa Croce is the largest Franciscan church in the world.

In this visit I discover about the Saint Francis Assisi, the man who gave up his family’s fortune to pursue a life of God through poverty. He became the patron Saint of Italy and founder of the Franciscan church. The Franciscan order is characterized by total poverty. Its links to its past and origins might seem strange when exploring the church. Plain on first sight, an intimate walk around proves that this church is a treasure trove of wealth and art. Join me as I discover why this church is often referred to as the Temple of Italian Glories.

History of Santa Croce

Santa Croce’s history begins with the spreading of the religious message of Francis of Assisi. He was a spiritual leader who set out to follow the example of Jesus Christ by following the gospel accounts after giving up a life in the military. He devoted his life to serving God and helping the poorest in society. His following, referred to as Franciscans, arrived in the winter of 1209 to build a church and monastery in the poorest part of Florence.

As times changed, wealth and money started to pour into the city of Florence. Wealthy merchants donated their newfound money to the building of a new church. As Florence became a powerhouse of the Middle Ages the church was rebuilt before being enriched and modified. Fires and floods added complications and resulted in more modifications and improvements to the church and the complex.

By the 19^th century Santa Croce had established itself as a ‘must visit’ tourist site. People from all over Europe would come to visit the church. But at the time of the Napoleonic suppressions the Franciscans had to give up the church and monastery which was taken over by the military with barracks set up in an area of the complex. By the time Napolean was defeated Santa Croce was given back to Franciscans in 1814.

Shortly after the wars came the unification of Italy, a subject I must confess to knowing little about. The ‘House of Savoy’ and the ‘papacy’ are all subjects to learn about as my exploration of this country continues. Before Rome became the capital of Italy, the honor fell to Florence. It was during this period that the church became the property of the central state.

In the year 1933 Santa Croce was elevated to the honorific rank of Basilica. The floods of 1966 almost destroyed the church, but the church survived and has been the subject of intense restoration ever since.

Santa Croce Façade

Standing in the middle of the Santa Croce square the impressive façade stands tall and proud in front of you. The façade that is seen today was financed in part by an English Protestant magnate, Sir Francis Joseph Sloane. Sir Francis had made his fortune from a local Tuscan copper mine. When I have some more time I will explore if there is a link between Sir Francis and a namesake square in London.

The façade is the work of architect Niccolo Matas who finished the façade between 1853 and 1865. It is clad in white marble and framed in green marble, a very traditional Florentine appearance from the Middle Ages and Renaissance. This is an appearance that is all too common in the rest of the city. In my eagerness to enter the church I really didn’t pay much attention to the details of the façade. At the top of the façade, surprisingly is a star of David. Rumors are this was built here because Niccolo was Jewish.

Monument to Dante

As I leave the square and make my way around to the entrance of the church, I cannot miss the tall and imposing monument placed near the church. On closer inspection I find out this is a monument to ‘Dante’.

I must confess to knowing nothing of the man and must add this to the list of research and self-education after my visit. A quick search teaches me that he was a famous Italian poet, philosopher and writer whose famous work was ‘The Divine Comedy’. The first section of this work includes what is known as Dante’s Inferno and is a medieval description of hell. The monument seen here today is from 1968, but the original statue dates to 1865, the year of grand celebrations of the famous Dante’s birth in 1265.

The creation of this monument was planned to coincide with the completion of the new façade. Its original location was in the middle of the square before it was moved to its present position. When it was unveiled in its new location the new king of Italy (Victor Emanuel II) was there for the unveiling. According to my guidebook, the base is adorned with two Marzocco, the heraldic lions of the old Florentine republic.

The basilica of Santa Croce

The construction of the current church was started in 1294 to replace the old church founded by St Francis and his followers. Santa Croce translated means ‘Holy Cross’. The design of the church was by Arnolfo di Cambio.

In recent visits I started to comment on how churches are constructed in the shape of a cross. Santa Croce is no different, except that its floorplan is in the form of a Tau cross. I was blissfully unaware that there were different types of crosses. A Tau cross is a T shaped cross and is called a Tau because it is shaped like the Greek letter Tau which in its upper-case form has the same appearance as the Latin letter T.

Entry is made on the north side and into the nave and not through the western entrance in the ornate Façade. Towering arches have been built on octagonal pillars on either side of the nave. Looking upwards to the ceiling, a very bland set of timber trusses contrast beautifully with the white arches.

The nave itself simmers. All is silent as visitors walk slowly round, appreciating all that is before them. The feeling I had was this was a church that is yet to be discovered by most tourists. This leaves time and space to learn and appreciate one of Florence’s less visited sites. As I walk round to the western entrance to start my visit properly, the high altar at the far end of the nave seems spectacular and worthy of a detailed look. There is so much to see that not all can be seen in the one visit. I’ll be back.

Temple of the Italian Glories

Interspersed around the chapels of the basilica Santa Croce, on both floors and walls in both the nave and aisles are several tombs, graves and elaborate monuments to notable Italians. As my exploration of Florence, Tuscany and Italy broadens I’m sure a better education will take place on some of the names I’m about to mention. This place is known as the temple of Italian glories (we in England might use the word worthies). It is a who’s who of Italian history. Santa Croce went from an initial graveyard, which served the Franciscan friars before wealth and power dictated more elaborate monumental tombs and graves to be placed within its walls. As a result, Santa Croce became the guardian of Florence’s glories.

It started in the 15^th century with two tombs for Leonardo Bruni and Carlo Marsuppini, two literary figures who earned their fame as chancellors of the Florence Republic. The signoria (local government) stumped the costs of these graves which began the transition to Guardian of Florence Glories. Cosimo de Medici revived the tradition of using the church to honour the great and good when he commissioned the monument to world renowned sculptor and artist Michelangelo (famous for his painting in the Sistine chapel and his David sculpture). Others would take a leaf out of his book as monuments were added, most notably for astronomer Galileo, and political philosopher Machiavelli (from whom we get our English word Machiavellian).

From the 19^th century onwards, the church transformed from Guardian of Florence’s glories to the Pantheon of the Italians. A monument to Vittorio Alfieri was completed in 1810 before a cenotaph of Dante Alighieri was erected in 1829 (he is still buried in Ravenna). Monuments and tombs to Gioachino Rossini (who was buried in Paris, before his body was removed and brought here) were added at the beginning of the 20^th century. In 1871 the remains of Foscolo were also transferred to Santa Croce. Efforts were also made to try and bring back Dante’s remains but, sadly, agreement could not be reached.

There are over 250 graves and monuments to explore and about which to learn. I won’t bore you with the details of each one but challenge you to see it all for yourself if visiting Florence – you won’t be disappointed.

The Masterpieces

Santa Croce’s origins as a Franciscan Church seem almost forgotten when viewing the incredible artwork that adorns the place. This church is so rich in its fabulous works of art that it almost defies the Franciscan order of poverty. There are around 4,000 pieces of work, ranging from the 13^th to 20^th century which bless this church and complex. One can only imagine the arts of work here are priceless as most of what is seen is original.

Some of the highlights include the main altar, surrounded in frescoes of the ‘Legend of the True Cross’ by Agnolo Gaddi. The frescoes by Giotto. There is the Cimabue crucifix dated 1288. There is the Bardi altarpiece. 3 pieces of work by Donatello, the crucifix in painted wood, Saint Louis of Toulouse in gilded bronze and the Annunciation of the Virgin. Construction of Pazzi chapel by Brunelleschi. Michelangelo’s tomb, Salviati’s ‘Deposition’, Bronzino’s ‘Descent’. The list could go on and on.

The 16 chapels built within the church, combined with the greater church complex, draw inspiration for so many and even influence some. In the 19^th century French author Stendhal visited Florence and Santa Croce, and he was overcome with emotion. He wrote “I was in a sort of ecstasy, from the idea of being in Florence, close to the great men whose tombs I had seen”. Stendhal syndrome was born, also known as Florence syndrome which occurs when individuals are exposed to such magnificent art.

Cimabue's Crucifix at the entrance to the Rinuccini Chapel

Donatello - Annunciation and detail of the angel circa 1435

St. John Gualbert Enthroned with Four Stories from his Life

In Conclusion

Santa Croce was a great place to start my education on the beautiful city of Florence. The basilica of Santa Croce certainly wasn’t on my list of places to be visited constructed prior to arriving. There are reputedly more famous and iconic attractions in the city. So, I’m grateful for the recommendation to visit by a dear friend.

What was learnt at the basilica has built on knowledge gleaned in recent meanderings. I had learnt how that a church’s floorplan represents a cross, but these meanderings further enhanced that knowledge base as I learned that there are different types of crosses. The basilica is a combination of the grandiose Gothic architecture, the tombs of great Italians, the perfection of Brunelleschi’s Pazzi Chapel and some of the finest examples of Florentine painting.

Its origins date back to one of the two patron saints of Italy, Saint Francis. This has given rise to an interest in visiting Assisi (Umbria region, south of Tuscany in central Italy) if the opportunity arises. I found out that some of the great people of Florentine and Italian history are buried here. Not only did the basilica provide the perfect place to start exploring but also has inspired me to visit and explore Ravenna (where Dante is buried).

So, I leave the Basilica of Santa Croce behind and meander off in search of the next jewel in Florence’s crown.

June 1, 2025September 13, 2025

Royal Observatory Greenwich, Observatory in London, England

Introduction

As I walk through Greenwich Park and up a steep hill, I begin an approach to the former site of Greenwich Castle. Once at the top it is easy to see why this would have been the perfect location for a castle. The views from the top are rather impressive. Sadly, the castle is long gone, and though I was not here primarily for the wonderful views over the Thames and greater London they were a bonus. I was here to visit the ‘Royal Observatory’, another London Landmark and part of the Royal Museums Greenwich. This was to be a meandering full of education, and one that, as always, I hope provides inspiration! During this visit I delved into the world of astronomy, time, longitude and latitude. Read on as I walk back through the corridors of time on a voyage of discovery.

Early beginnings

During the 17^th century England had suffered some turbulent times. I have always been fascinated by the struggle between Oliver Cromwell and Charles I. I have never paid much attention to what happened next. After the Civil War, then the execution of the king in early 1649, the subsequent republic and then the death of Oliver Cromwell, the monarchy was restored. Charles II was defeated by Cromwell at the Battle of Worcester in 1651 and had to flee to Europe where he remained in exile until 1660 when the English throne was restored to him. He was 30 years old. He was a controversial character but left a lasting impression by way of improvements in navigation and ship design.

Under his orders he founded the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. The world and, particularly, European nations, were now relying on the sea for trade as their empires were expanding. These ships needed to know where they were headed. Incredibly they could work out their position using the sun and stars to work out North and South (latitude). They had no idea how to work out East and West (longitude). So, Charles was convinced by leading scientists that an observatory was needed to find longitude and put England back at the forefront of seamanship.

Flamsteed House

John Flamsteed was appointed as Charles II’s astronomical observer. As he was the first Royal Astronomer, I begin to understand why the oldest building at the Royal Observatory is named after him – Flamsteed House. John was appointed on 4^th March 1675, but it wasn’t till 22^nd June that the decision was made to build ‘a small observatory within our park at Greenwich, upon the highest ground’.

The name Christopher Wren has come up in my previous meanderings in Oxford and more recently at Kensington Palace. A well-known architect, I have yet to write about his most famous work, St Paul’s Cathedral, London. Watch this space! Before Christopher became a well-known architect, he had been a professor of astronomy at Oxford. He and his assistant, Robert Hooke, suggested the ruined site of Greenwich Castle. They reasoned that solid foundations were already in place, there was excellent access to London via road and river, and the site was far enough away to avoid air pollution from the city.

The foundation stone was laid 10^th August 1675 by John and 11 months later, on 10 July 1676, he moved in. John was to spend the next 40 years observing the moon and the stars. On entering Flamsteed House, you are provided with information regarding the 10 Astronomers Royal that lived and worked here:

John Flamsteed (1675-1719), Edmond Halley (1720-1742), James Bradley (1742-1762), Nathaniel Bliss (1762-1764), Nevil Maskelyne (1765-1811), John Pond (1811-1835), Sir George Biddell Airy (1835-1881), Sir William Henry Mahoney Christie (1881-1910), Sir Frank Watson Dyson (1910-1933), Sir Harold Spencer Jones (1933-1955) & Sir Richard van der Riet Woolley (1956-1971).

As I walk round Flamsteed House it becomes clear that the Royal Observatory’s life began to evolve from the early days of a basic observation post into more of a family home. The tour looks at the families of two of the Astronomers Royal and their families – The Maskelyne & Airy Family. Observatory life began to change as guests would be wined and dined, and the families began to live with the astronomers. This meant that Flamsteed House was expanded to accommodate more people as seen when walking around.

The Octagon Room

As I leave the first rooms visited, we make our way up into the Octagon room. It is a bland and tall room, full of windows which beam natural light in and is filled with clocks. The eye is drawn to the many fascinating devices. When the room was built there were no instruments installed so John Flamsteed had to bring in all his own.

The Octagon room design didn’t consider the true north south line so, was unsuitable for measuring star positions. Instead, John used this room for the observation of specific events like the appearance of comets and eclipses. Most of his work was completed in a purpose-built structure nearby. A lot of the clocks in there were supplied by Thomas Tompion, London’s leading clock maker and paid for by John’s patron, Sir Jonas Moore.

The time ball at Royal Observatory

The rest of the visit to Flamsteed house is spent looking at a vast array of clocks, chronometers and other such devices. The Royal Observatory established itself as a centre for measuring and sharing time.

When leaving the house, look immediately at its roof. You will notice a funny looking pole, located on top of the Octagon Roof, with a large red ball. This was an installation by John Pond, the sixth Astronomer Royal, in 1833. Nearly 200 years later it is still in operation. Fortunately, I timed my visit to witness the time ball descend at 1300 though I had no prior knowledge that this event took place each day. This time ball is dropped to provide a visual time signal. Having walked up from the River Thames I reckon that a telescope is needed to observe the red ball and its movement.

It was designed so that all the ships at the docks in London could see the ball drop and know that it was 1pm and set their clocks to the right time. You could say that this was the beginning of establishing Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) as measured at the Meridian Line (the earth’s zero degree line of longitude). I found it interesting to learn that, around Britian up until the mid-19^th century, the sun was used to set local time in villages, towns and cities. For example, this meant that Yarmouth to the east was 7 minutes ahead of Greenwich and somewhere as far west at Penzance was 22 minutes behind.

The development of railways was to change all this. There was the need for a centralized time. The chaos and lack of management from trying to run a timetable where every destination was in a different time zone on such a small island is beyond contemplation. Sir George Airy saw the potential in a new clock system. He ordered one for Greenwich which was made by Charles Shepherd of London and had it mounted on the gates to the Observatory. It is known as ‘The Shepherd Gate Clock’. It was then linked to other parts of the observatory and London train stations.

Airy wrote of this system ‘I cannot help but feel a satisfaction in thinking that the Royal Observatory is thus quietly contributing to the punctuality of business through a large portion of this busy country’.

Shepherd Gate Clock at Royal Observatory

The Meridian Observatory

The other important building of the Royal Observatory is the Meridian Observatory building. I mentioned above that John Flamsteed did most of his work away from the octagonal room in a purpose-built structure. By the time his successor took over the building was subsiding and falling away which meant that subsidence rates had to be factored in to measurements of star positions!! Edmund Halley commissioned a new building to replace the old and installed an improved quadrant device and accurate timekeeper supplied by the prestigious clock maker from London George Graham.

James Bradley was Halley’s successor, and he was granted money to build additional spaces to Halley’s original buildings, which included a new observatory, bedroom for the assistant, a library and calculating room. These were the rooms which I saw on my visit. It is also where the astronomical work was completed until the 1950s before such work was carried out at the rural location of Herstmonceux in East Sussex.

As time went on, each Royal Astronomer kept collecting more data and improving the instruments in use. The 7^th Astronomer, George Biddell Airy, designed the Airy transit circle. This was the defining instrument of the world’s prime meridian. Unlike the equator which provides a natural zero line north and south there wasn’t a natural prime meridian for longitude.

In 1884 at the international Meridian Conference in Washington delegates recommended that the Meridan passing through Greenwich should be used. They also recommended that Greenwich be the starting point of the day, year and millennium at the stroke of midnight Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). This applied to the whole world thus creating the time zones system with which we are familiar today.

Transit instrument, Edward Troughton, 1816

Device from inside the Meridian Observatory

The Camera Obscura

Across the courtyard from the Prime Meridian line is the camera obscura. This is an example of how attempts were made to capture images before photography was invented and developed. This obscura was a former summerhouse. On clear days you can see a projection of Romney Road and the Queen’s house.

Sadly, this isn’t the original. John Flamsteed’s original was removed quickly after his tenure before Nevil Maskelyne installed a new one during his stint at the observatory. The one that I visited today was built in 1994 and provides a chance to see London the way they did back in the day.

Conclusions about Royal Observatory

This concludes a fascinating and educational visit to the Royal Observatory. Being close to the Cutty Sark it was convenient to expand my knowledge of Maritime Greenwich. The visit to the Royal Observatory taught me about longitude and latitude. I found out that it is possible to navigate using the moon and the stars! The importance and history of this site will be remembered every time I talk about time, travel, etc.

The visit has also challenged me to revisit Christopher Wren’s masterpiece and finally write about St Paul’s Cathedral. Yet, surprisingly, it has given me a completely different direction in which to travel as I feel a visit to Herstmonceux in East Sussex would prove very inquisitive and interesting in building on the knowledge gathered here. I hope that you have enjoyed reading about my visit to the Royal Observatory and have joined me in learning about longitude, latitude and GMT.

May 18, 2025May 20, 2025

Cutty Sark, Royal Museums Greenwich, Greenwich, London, UK

Cutty Sark
Royal Museums Greenwich, London, UK

The Cutty Sark is one of the most famous ships in the world and is another London landmark that has been visited. Not a battle-hardened ship, with stories of famous victories. Instead it was a state-of-the-art and record-breaking tea clipper. The Cutty Sark now resides in Maritime Greenwich close to the banks of the Thames.

It is an award-winning visitor attraction and is part of the Royal Museums Greenwich site which also includes the National Maritime Museum, the Queen’s House and the Royal Observatory. Join me as I explore this iconic ship and learn about its dramatic life, the tea trade and how it was saved before coming to ‘live’ in London.

Cutty Sark

The ship was built by Scott & Linton at their premises Woodyard at Dumbarton on the bank of the River Leven, Scotland. It was commissioned by John Willis. John had retired from sea to take over his father’s established shipping business. John paid Scott & Linton £16,150 to complete the works by July 1869. Design problems resulted in cashflow issues which meant that works were suspended before creditors, most prominent among them being William Denny & Brothers, completed the building.

The Cutty Sark was a clipper ship which was designed for speed. The Cutty Sark’s clever design, neither a wooden nor an iron ship but a composite construction. This meant that there was more space for storage as well as having high speed. 138 iron frames and over 20,000 bolts were used to construct the Cutty Sark. The hull was sheathed up to the waterline with thin plates of Muntz metal (this was done to protect the hull and ensure it wouldn’t slow down).

The main mast is 153 feet high and if all the sails were out, they would measure 32,000 square feet in total. The Cutty Sark is 64.7m long and 11m wide. Its Scottish origins meant it was given the name Cutty Sark, which means ‘short skirt’ and came from the garment worn by the witch Nannie in Robert Burn’s Poem ‘Tam o’Shanter’.

China Tea Trade

Walking on to the ship you’re immediately greeted by differing educational stations where you can learn about the China Tea Trade, Opium wars and the Cutty Sark’s history. The British have a reputation for drinking tea, but did you know that it didn’t reach these shores until the 1650s. This was primarily due to Catherine of Braganza (wife of King Charles II), who was from Portugal where tea drinking was already popular.

At the time tea was heavily taxed which meant that only the higher echelons of society could afford to enjoy drinking the tea. But, by the 19th century taxes were slashed. This was because of the extensive smuggling network supplying tea and driving its popularity across the nation. As a result, the great tea races were born. Ships were built for speed and competed to be the first boat back carrying the cargo. These races were the reason that the Cutty Sark was built.

The Cutty Sark would complete only 8 of these races. As steam ships developed and the opening of the Suez Canal happened making the ship almost redundant.

Australian Wool Trade

Having been forced out of the tea trade, the Cutty Sark entered the Australian wool trade in 1883. It was here that the she made her name. Upon its first entry in a race to sail halfway round the world, it beat its competitors by 25 days in 1883 before, in 1886, Captain Richard Woodget mastered the ship and set a record of 73 days for the trip from Sydney to London.

The wool trade was to succumb to the same fate as the tea trade as the steam ships made their way into the market. Not making money, the Cutty Sark was sold to a Portuguese firm.

Portuguese Ownership

The purchasers of the Cutty Sark were the Ferreira & Co. of Lisbon who paid £2,100 for her. Upon acquiring the ship, the owners renamed it Ferreira, and it became a cargo ship. It was responsible for transporting goods between Portugal and countries in its own empire. The Cutty Sark managed to come through the First World War unscathed but was starting to show signs of ageing.

A stroke of good luck occurred when, after suffering damage during a storm, she was sent to Falmouth for repairs. It was here that a retired sea captain, Wilfred Dowman, recognised her and was determined to save her. He paid £3,500 to buy her, which was more than she was worth, and more than Ferreira & Co had paid for her.

Cutty Sark’ first Restoration

Wilfred completed the purchase in October 1922 and made plans to restore the Cutty Sark to its appearance in 1870 with help and support of his wife Catherine. They succeeded and in 1924 they opened the ship as visitor attraction and training ship for cadets. It was to stay in Falmouth till 1938.

Wilfred died in 1936 on a homeward voyage from the West Indies and was buried at sea. Wilfred’s widow gave the Cutty Sark to the Thames Nautical Training College along with a generous gift of £5,000 to help with its maintenance. The ship was taken from Falmouth in 1938 and remained as a cadet ship until the end of the Second World War.

With the changing times the Cutty Sark became redundant as more modern ships were utilised. The college took possession of HMS Exmouth and started ploughing its resources and funds into that ship. The Cutty Sark had become unloved and unwanted.

Cutty Sark at Greenwich

The ship’s final saviour was a Frank Carr. He was Director of the National Maritime Museum (mentioned above as one of the 4 museums that make up the current Royal Maritime Museums). Frank set about forming the Cutty Sark Preservation Society. He managed to persuade HRH The Duke of Edinburgh to join who provided much support and enthusiasm. The funds were raised and after a short period of display it was moved into a purpose-built dock.

And so, the Cutty Sark came to her final resting place, a memorial to Britain’s illustrious maritime history. Following further restoration, the Cutty Sark was opened by the late Queen Elizabeth II in 1957. The Cutty Sark would go on to be one of London’s famous and most successful tourist attractions.

A significant report was completed in the mid-1990s that highlighted that without further work the ship would cease to exist. Thankfully the funds were raised with the help of the Heritage Lottery fund and work began in late 2006. In May 2007 a fire broke out which delayed the project but thankfully didn’t destroy the ship. The works were completed, and the Cutty Sark was finally re-opened on 25th April 2012 by her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. This was the second time, 55 years after the last time she did the honours.

Conclusion

This completes an educational visit to the iconic Cutty Sark. Built for speed in the transportation of cargo and exclusively for the tea trade, she had a very small window of operation, before different ways have been found to preserve her. She was a record breaker when she started to ferry cargo for the wool trade.

My visit taught me about the tea trade and the Australian wool trade, both of which I was blissfully unaware. Her home port was London and is fitting that this is where she found her final resting place. A big thank you to all those who helped preserve her for future generations to enjoy and to learn and appreciate the history that made this country great.

May 11, 2025September 13, 2025

Dunster, Village in England, Exmoor, Somerset, England

Dunster
Somerset, Exmoor

You may not have visited Dunster. You may never have even heard of Dunster. But, I hope I can portray this small, charming and beautiful medieval village. Located off the A39 near the seaside town of Minehead in Somerset and on the northeastern edge of Exmoor National Park, it is England at its best.

Whether you have a couple of hours or can manage a couple of days it is a fascinating place to visit and the perfect base from which to branch out onto Exmoor. Full of interest and intrigue, Dunster has it all. There are around 200 listed buildings and monuments that form the village.

There are beautiful cottages, a historic castle, a desirable high street, elegant church, medieval buildings and a unique Yarn market that grace the village – what more could you want! It was once a thriving trading port before its wealth came through the wool trade. Join me as I explore this dreamy village.

The National Park Centre

The National Park Centre in Dunster is one of three located across Exmoor (the other two being at Dulverton & Lynmouth). I have found when travelling and exploring anywhere in the world, not just the UK, that these venues provide the perfect starting point to gather information, resources, tips and advice.

A visit here is made to gather information regarding the special habitats that exist across Exmoor for when one moves away from Dunster village. There is plenty to see and do on the moors. On this occasion they provided me with a useful map of the town of Dunster and some other leaflets which should inspire me to visit other places it its environs.

The road, the A396, which leads to the village from the A39, is known as Dunster Steep before it continues through the village and out onto Exmoor. The National Park Centre is located on the left-hand side as you approach the village. After my visit I leave here following my map and take a short walk towards the village before taking a footpath on my right which leads me to Conygar Tower.

Conygar Tower

To the naked eye this tower could be easily confused as part of the castle, but as one approaches or explores the village of Dunster you soon realize that this is a separate site to the castle. It still has connections to it though as it was commissioned by Henry Luttrell and designed by Richard Phelps to enhance the landscape around Dunster Castle.

Standing on top of the hill it offers views out over the bay of Minehead. Conygar Tower is circular in design, has no roof, is a grade 2 listed building and was built in 1775. It stands about 18m in height. The word Conygar comes from two medieval words: coney which meant rabbit and garth meaning garden. The surrounding woods offer a very pleasant walk up to the tower and it should be added to everyone’s ‘must see’ list when visiting the village of Dunster.

After walking up to Conygar Tower, I retrace my steps back to the main road and walk along ‘The Ball’, a narrow road that leads to a footpath. Along the way and before the footpath is reached is the chance to capture the iconic ‘picture postcard’ image of Dunster. After walking along the footpath I reach my next discovery, Dunster Butter Cross.

Dunster Butter Cross

The unknown and rather puzzlingly situated Butter Cross is found on the outskirts of the village. Once a staple of high streets in many market towns across the country they provided the people of England with a reminder of the death and resurrection of Jesus. On closer inspection you may find that this particular cross is more of a stump than a cross. This is due to its relocation from the high street to its current location at the end of a footpath.

This cross dates to the 15^th century and is referred to as ‘butter’ cross as this is where the butter would have been sold on market day. The cross could have been damaged during the years of the reformation, but again there is no proof as to when. There is also little evidence as to ‘why it was moved’ but adds a layer of intrigue to this fascinating village.

After a photo and learning about the ‘Butter Cross’, I turn left down St George’s Street and head back towards the village centre. You can perhaps guess where this street leads to by the name of it as it refers to St George’s church. Before St George’s Church is entered time was taken to turn left along ‘Priory Green’, a road which leads back to the footpath accessed previously. Instead of walking the length of this road, there is but a short distance to discover the Dovecote, Memorial Garden and Tithe Barn which are all located opposite each other.

Dovecote

This charming building is tucked away opposite the Tithe barn and walls of the Priory Church of St George. There is no evidence of when it was built but it is estimated that the building was built around the 13^th and 14^th century as it similar in design to others known to be of that period. The Luttrells did some repair work in the 18^th and 19^th century.

The Dovecote was to provide the privileged with fresh meat in the form of squabs (newly hatched pigeons) which meant that the buildings were often referred to as Pigeon houses. These buildings are Norman in design, and it was estimated that 26,000 of them were situated around England in the 17^th century. There is another example in nearby Porlock, so I will have to keep my eyes peeled when we leave this fascinating village.

Tithe Barn

Also dating back to the 14^th century, this barn was originally part of the Benedictine Priory. Sadly, very little of it remains due to several refurbs, it now serves the community. A tithe refers to an ancient Christian tradition based on Old Testament law. A tithe of 10% of the annual produce in crops was to be stored in the barn for the owners. The information board nearby lets us know that this was once part of the Dunster Estate under the de Mohuns before it was transferred to the Priory when William de Mohun established one here.

Memorial Garden

Completely hidden and sheltered is Dunster’s Memorial Garden and is probably unknown to many. It is a quiet and peaceful place and offers a chance for reflection. Access is through a small gate hinged in a beautiful archway in the tall wall that surrounds this former cloister garden of Dunster Priory.

The garden now takes the name of Memorial Garden as it was dedicated to the lives lost in conflicts.

This walking tour takes us back to the entrance to St George’s church where it is possible to walk through the graveyard, past the preachers cross and the western Norman entrance to the southern entrance.

St Georges Church

A religious building has stood here almost as long as the castle. Sadly, nothing remains of that era. You can read more detail of the discoveries made when I visited the inside of the church, here. The parish and priory church of St George is a fascinating church. The priory was dissolved in 1536 on the order of Henry VIII at the time of the dissolution of the monasteries.

It is claimed that the rood screen is the longest in England. Inside one can learn the basics about the villages’ two famous families, the de Mohuns and the Luttrells.

Leave the church to the south and come out on Church Street (also the A396) and take a right onto West Street before taking a left just after the Forrester Arms and along Park Street and head towards Gallox bridge.

North Western entrance to St George's Church — North western entrance to St George's Church

Church, showing tower, Nave and southern entrance

View of St George's church from Gardens on Castle Hill

Gallox bridge

This picturesque medieval stone bridge crosses over the River Avill and was originally known as ‘Gallows Bridge.’ Dating back to the 15^th century, the bridge was built for the packhorses to transport fleeces from Exmoor to Dunster. These bridges are apparently commonplace across Exmoor, so it is best to keep eyes peeled when out and exploring. Access to the bridge from the town side is along Park Street at the end of which are some very handsome cottages. On the other side of the river there looks to be a dead end, but those with time on their hands can pick up the public footpath to Bats Castle (an old Iron Age hill fort).

Return over the bridge and retrace one’s steps slightly and then take a right turn up Mill gardens which leads to Dunster Watermill and Castle grounds entrance.

Dunster Castle

The castle, it could be argued, is the jewel in Dunster’s crown. In the Dunster Castle blog there is detail of the two families who built the castle we appreciate today. There is little to no evidence of the castle that stood here nearly 1000 years ago but evidence from the 13^th century onwards can been seen and is worth the entrance fee. The site is now run by the National Trust.

After completing a visit to the castle, leave by the main entrance and follow a little road down to the high street.

Dunster Yarn Market

The high street of Dunster village offers a picture of ‘British High Streets’. Quintessentially English it has charming independent shops and eateries that are interspersed with pubs and hotels. No doubt little has changed in appearance in preceding centuries. The shops, food and accommodation will likely draw you in but shouldn’t distract you from the octagonal building situated at the far end of the high street. This octagonal structure, known as the Yarn Market, was built in 1609 by George Luttrell of Dunster Castle with repairs being made in 1647. It was a covered market where the sales of local broadcloth and homespun and is evidence of Dunster’s once flourishing wool trade.

This brings us to the end of the tour around the historic and charming village of Dunster. Slightly further afield are two places that also form part of the village and shouldn’t be ignored. They are within walking distance but can be reached by car.

Timber frame work of Dunster Yarn Market

English Heritage Information Board at Dunster Yarn Market

Dunster Station

One way of arriving at Dunster and avoiding all the busy roads is by a heritage steam train. Previously mentioned the West Somerset Railway runs steam trains here during the season, just like the line’s original plans. The line was an extension of the line that was bringing success to the neighbouring Watchet, so, George Luttrell, seeing its success, encouraged an extension of the line to Minehead. The Luttrells sponsored the building of the station for visiting guests, most notable polo players. Rumours are that George did not want his picturesque castle and polo grounds disturbed so the station was set a fair distance (about 1 mile) from the town centre. Goerge did invite the Maharajah of Jodhpur but was a little surprised when he turned up with his full team which included 62 polo ponies. Other players from all over the world came to play polo at Dunster and included Winston Churchill.

Dunster Beach

A fair walk from the village centre is Dunster Beach. The West Somerset railway line runs along the coast edge from Blue Anchor Station and arrives at Dunster Station. The beach on its northern side is that of Dunster beach, a pleasurable mix of sand and shingle. Views from the village are exquisite on a good day. The beach is nearly a mile and half from the village centre so is often overlooked when visits are made to Dunster. Wooden posts in the beach segregate individual sections of the beach and there is a “pill” box guarding the bay. These concrete pill boxes were built as a defence against unlikely invasions during World War II. Sadly, access isn’t permitted to these.

Conclusions

This concludes an excellent meandering to the village of Dunster. My trip was one of complete discovery, education and admiration. It began with the understanding of a church’s construction as phrases and names were better understood. It has left me with a little bit of inquisitiveness that maybe answered with a visit to the Abbeys at Bath and Glastonbury. A visit to the village’s 11^th century castle built on the initial findings of the names de Mohun and Luttrell as I discovered these families’ association with the village. The castle has been on the site for nearly 1000 years and has witnessed the great and gory history that shaped these lands. Dreamy Dunster is a picture of England, I hope that you enjoy it as much as I have!

April 27, 2025September 13, 2025

National Trust – Dunster Castle and Watermill, Castle in England, Somerset

Dunster Castle
Dunster, Exmoor

The strength and power of England is encapsulated in the majestic view of Dunster Castle which is gained when arriving along the A39. The view from the railway line that runs between Minehead and Bishop’s Lydeard (now run by the West Somerset Railway and using preserved steam and diesel locomotives) is equally grand. It’s an artist’s dream and quite photogenic. Cattle graze lazily to give a canvas of England’s green and glorious lands which lay low in foreground coupled with the darker hues of green which grace the hills that surround Dunster castle and village in the background. Between the two and perched on top of the tor, Dunster Castle is a classic picture of English stately elegance. The exotic and diverse shades of greenery surrounding the castle almost camouflage its very existence. Read on as my ‘education through exploration’ follows on from my visit to St George’s church. In St George’s we discovered two family names – de Mohun and Luttrell. On this visit I discovered that they were the only families to own the castle. A visit to Dunster Castle explores 1000 years of history and expands my recently acquired knowledge and caused me to search for further details regarding the families. During my tour of the castle I made a fascinating discovery before going off to explore the castle grounds and working watermill.

View from Cafe — Looking out from the cafe

The de Mohun’s – a medieval military base – 1086-1376

The castle’s history covers all the great and iconic moments of England’s history over the past 1000 years. If buildings could talk, I’m sure that it would have many tales to tell. Dunster Castle’s history begins not long after the Norman invasion of 1066 and subsequent victory at the battle of Hastings. William de Moyon (this was his French name, and he adapted this to his English family name of de Mohun) was a Norman lord who assisted William in his conquering invasion. His efforts and loyalty were rewarded when he was granted some 55 west county manors which included lands in and around Dunster. In 1084 he became the sheriff of Somerset and is also credited with the founding of Dunster Priory (which we learnt about in our visit to St George’s Church). His son William de Mohun II became the first Earl of Somerset and between him and his father set about building a motte and bailey timber castle atop the tor to keep guard over a rebellious west country. William de Mohun II was the most prominent of the de Mohuns, becoming infamous in the west country during the power struggle between Matilda and Stephen in the Civil War of 1139-1153. The castle was run by the de Mohuns for about 300 years. During the ownership of the castle by the de Mohuns, they built it into a powerful medieval stronghold as stone battlements, towers (there is half a tower remaining) and the lower-level gateway and oak doors (the only complete parts that remain) were added to its fortifications. In 1376 John de Mohun died and was the last senior male in the line of the de Mohuns of Dunster. Having no heir, his widow, Joan, then decided to sell the castle to Lady Elizabeth Luttrell (you might remember her name, when we discovered her tomb in St George’s church). Lady Elizabeth was the head of the Luttrell family and agreed to pay 5000 marks (in England and Scotland we used marks as having monetary value though they did not appear as a physical coin; their value at this this time was two thirds of a pound sterling) to transfer the ownership of the Dunster castle and estate post Joan’s death.

Iron bound doors through defensive inlet

Looking out the gateway with the stables and St George's church in the view

The Luttrell’s – a family home – 1376 – 1976

Lady Elizabeth (a granddaughter of Edward I) died before Joan, so her son Sir Hugh Luttrell acquired the castle after Joan’s death in 1404. You can begin to see why he had such a grand tomb in St George’s church as the first of the Luttrells to own the castle. Sir Hugh didn’t move into the castle till Christmas 1405 but set about repairing and expanding it into a country home fit for the family. This included glazing all the windows and, in 1420, building the gatehouse (at a cost of £250) by which entrance to the castle is made to this day.
When the quick tempered and argumentative George Luttrell inherited the castle in 1571, he set about converting it into a luxurious country home. In 1617 he employed William Arnold (a master mason and designer who had worked on Wadham College, Oxford and Montacute House, Somerset) to reform the castle into a Jacobean-style mansion (James I was king of England at the time).
Luttrell allegiances during the years of the Civil Wars of 1642-1651 changed back and forth. They were on the side of Parliament when the wars broke out. When the castle was under attack by the Royalists (those loyal to King Charles I), the Luttrells surrendered to the Royalists and switched sides! This change in allegiance meant that Prince Charles (later Charles II king of England, Scotland and Ireland 1660-1685) stayed in the castle (a bedroom has been named after him). Parliament forces then seized the castle in 1645.
After the war Oliver Cromwell (Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland 1653-1658) decided that the castle walls needed to be demolished to ‘slight’ the castle (we saw the same evidence of this when we visited Berkley Castle, Gloucestershire). It took about 200 men 12 days to complete his wishes. Thankfully, and for our benefit George Luttrell managed to convince the men to only destroy the outer walls.

Former passage to church at Dunster Castle

After the turmoil of the English Civil Wars and over the next few centuries, each generation of Luttrells spent money on improving the “castle” (castle in inverted commas as it became a country mansion rather than remain a castle). One of those whose improvements that can still be seen today happened after Francis Luttrell married a wealthy Dorset heiress, Mary Tregonwell, in 1680. She brought much needed funds to the project. These additions included the wooden staircase that provides us with access between the two floors, a new dining room and elaborate plasterwork ceilings.
Other improvements were made by the next generations, which included the employment of Salvin. He altered the exterior of the house to resemble a castle once more. Two new towers and battlements were added to give it a more aesthetic appearance. George Luttrell inherited the house in 1867, and with the help of Salvin they altered the exterior of the property by building two new towers and adding some additional battlements to ensure a more picturesque castle. He probably did as much destruction as he did construction, as, sadly, he removed the chapel. His extensive modernization project also included the supply of running hot water, the conservatory, Victorian windows, a billiard room, drawing room, a library, outer hall and a new gallery on the first floor.
The end of the Luttrells’ association with Dunster Caste came in 1976 when Lieutenant Colonel Walter Luttrell gave the castle to the National Trust thus concluding his family’s fascinating history with Dunster Castle.
Dunster Castle has a fascinating history from its origins as a Norman and medieval fortress before evolving into a family home. The current keepers of the castle are the National Trust who do a great job striking the right balance between conserving the castle and allowing people to enjoy its special charm and character.

Wooden carvings on chairs at Dunster Castle

The leather Gallery In Dunster Castle

One room in a tour of the castle requires special attention as the works displayed there are unique. A conversation with the gentleman who kept an eye on this room’s treasures revealed that if there was a fire then everyone would run to this room to save the paintings. The paintings on display depict the love story of Roman general Anthony and the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. The detail in these paintings is incredible and unique as they’re painted on leather. Details of how they were produced is given on note boards. On closer inspection one can see where the work was cut and stuck back together. As I read my guidebook it informs me that, as they weren’t commissioned for Dunster, they were altered to fit the room. It is astonishing that such works of art were so freely cut and rehung. As the only collection in the UK, they should draw a crowd, but I wonder how many pass by, blissfully unaware of the significance and wealth in these paintings.

Dunster Castle gardens

Remember our first view of Dunster Castle, where an exotic and diverse view of greenery almost camouflages the castle! One imagines that this was not always the case, as we learnt about the castle’s strategic importance. Flourishing flowers and green trees would have been the last thing on a garrison’s mind. It was during the Luttrell family occupancy that the castle became a family home, and changes were also made to the gardens. The castle’s location perched on top of a tor means that the gardens are steep. Different Luttrells have added their splash of creativity to the gardens as fashion and trends have changed through the centuries. It was in the 19^th and 20^th century that the garden really took the form that we see today as George Luttrell built an impressive Victorian garden full of terraces and colorful borders. But it was Alys Luttrell, an avid gardener and plant collector, who transformed the Victorian garden into a subtropical haven. Dunster’s climate provides the opportunity to thrive! Meandering along the eastern edge of the castle grounds is the river Avill.

View from the Southern Terrace out to Bristol Channel

View from Southern Terace over the Dunster Estate

Watermill

The river Avill provides the water to power this working watermill. A watermill was a necessity years ago, but it is remarkable to see one still in action and producing goods. The watermill currently produces 14 tonnes of flour a year.

Conclusion

Dunster Castle has provided a fascinating insight into the history of two families closely associated with the village of Dunster. Details of this history are in notes on display in the various rooms of Dunster castle. Specialized tours are also available at various times and at an extra cost. Dunster Castle is a lesser-known castle compared to some of the more illustrious of our land, Windsor, Edinburgh, Warwick, Cardiff, Dover, etc. It is, however, fascinating with its own story to tell. My explorations have built on the initial findings made in St Georges Church as meaning was put to the names of the tombs found inside the church. Dunster Castle has survived the ravages of war and somehow managed to remain in the family during so many political and social changes. As the castle has evolved the transformation from a timber motte and bailey into a splendid country house is remarkable and well worth a visit. Though no longer a family home it has been carefully passed on to the public to enjoy as their country home!! I hope, like me, you enjoy a visit to this castle, and feel free to let me know your thoughts!

April 20, 2025September 13, 2025

St George’s Church, Anglican church in Dunster, England

The dreamy and historic village of Dunster, Somerset, England, is situated on the northeastern edge of Exmoor National Park. Like most villages, towns and cities in England there is a church at its heart. St George’s church in Dunster is in a prominent setting also like other towns and villages across the land. England’s rich history is entwined with religion. In fact, religion has shaped our country through the centuries to leave us with a fascinating and complex mixture of various Christian based faiths and buildings.

The priory church of St George’s church in Dunster provides the perfect starting point to learn not only about this church and the Church of England in general, but, about Dunster and its associated history. Read on as this ‘education through exploration’ examines the fascinating St George’s Church.

Outside St George's Church

When arriving at a church one is normally drawn to its grand appearance, majestic architecture and lavish decorations (certainly true in some of the churches and cathedrals that have been recently visited – see elsewhere on Marks Meanderings) but St George’s church is not lavish or grand in appearance from ground level. St George’s Church is a reddish sandstone colour.

Walking through the graveyard that surrounds it you may notice a preaching cross. This marks the spot where preachers addressed parishioners. As you walk around the church you will immediately notice a smallish tower in the middle of the church but it’s not until a postcard is examined that the layout of the church is revealed. Looking from above or flying over the building it appears that it has been constructed in the shape of a cross, and this is surely by design to represent the cross on which Christ was crucified.

Beautiful building at southern entrance from Church Street

St George's Church Nave

My church building education begins with a step inside St George’s church from the southern entrance. Entrance is made into the ‘nave’. Traditionally a ‘nave’ runs from the western entrance to the transepts (we will learn about these later). The axis for most ancient church buildings is east west.

The nave (Latin for ship; think naval) is easily recognised as the place where a congregation generally sits. Historically, wooden pews were lined up either side of central aisle (a common set up in an English church) and some of these were boxed pews of which may remain. Large pillars support the structure (especially the roof), and pews often are designed to let the congregation see what happens without having their view obstructed. These days there are many places where individual seats are used, then stacked and stored for another service to allow visitors the freedom of the nave.

The pillars at St George’s Church date back to the 15^th century which was a wealthy period for Dunster and when wealth was invested in church building. In St George’s Church the ceiling and roof are of a fascinating timber construction where the trusses have been spread the length of it, and this, to my mind, is a perfect illustration of how roof construction takes place. On the western face of the church is the main entrance to the church, which is generally used on special occasions.

The doors here are basically Norman but were heavily restored in 1860s. Surmounted above the door is a circular stained-glass window. Between the two entrances is the font (this holds the water used in Holy Baptism). You will generally find the font at the entrance to a church as when a baptism takes place it symbolises an individual being admitted into the church. At the opposite end but on the northern side is the pulpit (the pulpit being where sermons were generally delivered from). This pulpit dates to Victorian times.

Timber trussed roof — Timer trussed roof

The screen at St George's Church

As we leave the nave we come to the main educational point in this exploration, a beautifully carved timber frame that runs the entire width of the church. This ornate, timber partition is known as the ‘screen’ or ‘roodscreen’ (rood is derived from a Saxon word meaning cross) and the one at St George’s is rumoured to be the longest in England/Europe, depending on your source of information. The church was originally a priory church and the main religious centre in Dunster. As a result of Dunster’s newfound wealth, which came through the wool trade, there was a need for a church for the townsfolk. This dispute was settled after an arbitration at Glastonbury (I assume Glastonbury Abbey and that this was when the country was Roman Catholic, and abbeys were the power of the land (cathedrals didn’t really exist till Henry VIII pulled us out of Roman Catholic rule). A future visit to Glastonbury Abbey may shed some light on this). The result of the tribunal ruled that the area to the east of the transepts should become the Priory Church with the remaining area (the nave) to be the Parish Church.

The Transepts at St George's Church

As we step through the beautifully carved screen (there is an abundance of these beautiful roodscreens in the West Country) we pass through the choir area and enter the ‘chancel’. This is the area of St George’s church, the centre of the cross as looking from above if we like, where the high altar is situated with the tower directly above. Then to the north and south of the chancel are what is referred to as the transepts. Transepts relate to the two parts forming the cross shape. The southern transept now houses a bookstall and a café with seating area. An additional chapel was added to the southern transept and eastern part of the church in the 14^th century. This is known as St Lawrence Chapel.

St Lawerence Chapel

Between the southern transept area and the chapel are other artefacts of interest – 3 chests, a tomb and a monument. The tomb and monument demand closer inspection. The Luttrell monument is raised to the memory of Thomas Luttrell, his wife and son (George) and wife. The tomb on the floor is that of Lady Elizabeth Luttrell mother of Sir Hugh Luttrell. This family name is integral to Dreamy Dunster’s history, and one that I will certainly learn a lot more about as these meanderings progress.

Stained Glass window of St Lawrence Chapel

The Priory Church

The eastern part of the St George’s church (or the top of the cross when looking from above) is known as the Priory Church. It also goes by the name of the Lutrell chapel. In the corner on the southern side of this church is a tomb, which is said to be the tomb of Lady Christian de Mohun, a name that will be referenced again as we broaden our explorations. Opposite her tomb is the tomb slab of Sir Hugh Luttrell and his wife Catherine de Beaumont. Sir Hugh was the first member of the family to take possession of the Dunster Estate, and don’t forget his mother’s tomb was in St Lawerence Chapel.

Sir Hugh Luttrell and his wife Catherine de Beaumont

The de Mohun Chantry

This area of the church is located on the far northeastern corner of the church and was formerly known as the Holy Trinty Chantry. It is the only remaining chantry chapel of 3 that were part of the church. The chapel was founded in 1491 by Henry Franke (I can’t see a connection with the current name given to the chapel). An information board provided me with the following: ‘When a chantry chapel was founded and endowed, a priest, or chaplain, would be appointed to say prayers for the souls of the founders. The priest was appointed by Feoffors (trustees) and he was independent of the church’s incumbent’.

Summary

Thus concludes my exploration of the Church of St George in Dunster. It has been a fascinating experience, and I have learned more as I have explored in more detail than when I have visited other churches. I am beginning to come to terms like nave, chancel, roodscreen, transept, etc. as I have taken more interest in the inner architecture and structure of a church. This will be a journey where more terminology will be discovered. Almost by chance, we discovered the largest roodscreen in England that was used to create a barrier between the townsfolk and the priory, and this has led to a link with Glastonbury and its abbey (I can’t wait to explore this one). The church is one of the furthest from Bath in the diocese of Bath & Wells. As a starting point to exploring the village of Dunster it has been enlightening, and I reckon that I will be seeing the names of Lutrell and de Mohun a lot more as I make my way around the town and not only here but further afield.

April 13, 2025September 13, 2025

Bologna, Capital of the Emilia-Romagna Region, City in Italy, Northern Italy

Nestled in the heart of Italy is Bologna. It is less visited than, say, Rome or Florence but is surely a contender for a hidden gem in Italy’s crown. Bologna is the capital of Emilia-Romagna, a region in northern Italy. The locals have strong political views and a passion for culinary delights. The city is a beautiful fusion of architecture and history. Its streets are adorned with endless sights of its famous porticoes. Bologna is a medieval masterpiece and boasts warm terracotta hues. It enjoys a vibrant and authentically Italian atmosphere.

Read on as we explore its charm and nicknames – “La Dotta” (The learned), “La Grassa” (The fat), “La Rossa” (the Red) and Turrita (with towers).

Monument to the Fallen at Park della Montagnola

Column of the Blessed Virgin of the Rosary

Bologna History

Bologna’s rich history spans millennia. What started as a small Umbrian settlement before it was conquered by the Etruscans (who called the settlement Felsina) before becoming a Roman colony named Bononia. During the medieval years, the construction of its two famous towers were built to monitor those who wished to enter and defend as necessary.

Bologna became a city of learning and was transformed into a renaissance and Baroque hub. This led to a boom leading to the building of magnificent homes, palaces and striking squares. The city was also a key player in the Risorgimento (unification of Italy) which brought the city further riches as it became a centre of industry and commerce. Towards the end of World War II, the cities rail hub and industry meant it was a strategic target for air raids which did significant damage.

Bologna “La Dotta”

“La Dotta” means ‘the learned’ and is reference to the city’s historic university, “Alma Mater Studiorum”. The university is the oldest in the Western world (just pipping Oxford in the UK – AD1096). Bologna’s university was founded in AD 1088 and provided teaching and learning dedicated to the study of law.

Archiginnasio Palace was once the main buildings of the university. A visit to the palace allows one to see the incredible courtyard adorned with coats of arms. The main draw of visiting the palace is the Anatomical Theatre where lessons were given on, you guessed it, the anatomy.

The theatre is made from spruce wood with the original marble table in the middle of the room which was used for autopsies (the room was severely damaged during the war but rebuilt). The ceiling has been decorated with symbolic figures which represent the fourteen constellations and Apollo, the protector of medicine, positioned in the centre.

Entrance to Archiginnasio Palace Courtyard

Ceiling of staircase in Archiginnasio Palace

Bologna “La Grassa”

‘La Grassa’ means ‘the fat’ which refers to Bologna’s hospitality and traditional food. Known as Italy’s food capital, it is the birthplace of some of Italy’s most beloved foods. The city is famous in Italy for its balsamic vinegar, wine, cold cuts of meat, parmesan cheese and fresh pasta.

Traditional dishes include Tagliatelle al ragu (what many people may called spaghetti bolognaise), tortellini in broth, lasagna al ragu (my personal favourite) and cotoletta petroniana (breaded meat fillets fried in lard, topped with prosciutto, parmesan cheese). Bologna’s famous cooked sausage, made with finely ground pork, fat and spices is called Mortadella, and it can only be called Mortadella if has been made in Bologna. It is easy to see why Bologna’s reputation is the food capital of Italy.

Bologna “La Rossa”

Bologna owes the name “la Rossa” to its famed red buildings and to the fact that it is the birthplace and the home of Italy’s political left. Politics is always a subject best left alone so I focus on the red architecture and terracotta roofs that render the city – La Rossa. When walking the streets of the city, the buildings and churches are often missed as the large porticoes hide them. A visit up any of the towers that allow access will show off the famous red rooftops of the city.

Bologna Porticoes

The famous porticoes of Bologna make for a unique experience. Over 40km of them can be found in the city, with the longest continuous portico leading from Porta Saragozza to San Luca (you can read about that here). UNESCO has now declared these and the city itself a world heritage site which is confirmation of their cultural significance.

The porticoes were built out of brick, stone or wood and some date from the twelfth century. A requirement was that they had to be tall enough for a man sat on a horse to ride through them. They can be found wherever you walk around the streets of the city and you can’t miss and admire these architectural masterpieces.

Bologna “Turrita”

Bologna is described as towered (Turrita) because at one point the city could boast around 100 towers. As a result it surely would have given Manhattan a run for its money in appearance. Towers were built to symbolise power and had to be tall and imposing. Sadly, today there are only around 20-30 towers remaining. Two that do remain which are of particular interest. They are iconic and are often referred to as the ‘symbols of the city’ or ‘the two towers’.

They are just about still standing, although currently not accessible due to renovation works (if you would like to contribute to the restoration then click here). The tallest one, Asinelli at 97.02 metres, was built between 1109 and 1119 by the Asinelli family. The Torre Gardisenda (also named after the family that built it) stands next to it but at a much shorter height of 47 metres. The Gardisenda tower gives the leaning tower of Pisa a run for its money and actually leans more than Pisa’s tower by 0.03 degrees.

Bologna's Churches

At the heart of the city is Piazza Maggiore, which is dominated by the city’s most important church, and, one of the largest in the world, the Basilica of San Petronio. The church is dedicated to Saint Petronius, the patron saint of Bologna. It is known as the unfinished church due to its main façade never being completed. Inside is a vast gothic masterpiece, tall and imposing as soon as you walk in. 22 chapels line the side of naves. Personally, I wouldn’t say that this is the most important church in the city, as we found out when visiting Bologna Cathedral.

The cathedral is the seat of the archbishop and, by definition, be the most important in the city. Another church that we visited that is important is the one at San Luca. Here we learned about ‘Madonna and Child’ and its importance not only to the people of Bologna but the rest of the world. Other churches that must be explored upon our return are the Santa Stefano complex better known as “Seven churches”, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the Church of the Holy Crucifix and the Basilica of San Giacomo Maggiore to name a few.

Gothic interior of Basilica di San Petronio

Conclusions

In conclusion this blog gives a brief snapshot of this wonderful city. It is certainly not as famous as other Italian cities but has a lot to offer the inquisitive tourist. Perhaps I shouldn’t write so much about it and keep it my secret. Perhaps the locals do not want its soul sold to the tourism gravy train.

My meanderings have brought me to Bologna on many occasions and each time I learn more about this incredible city. Every time I come I fall further in love with this city. It satisfies some of my great loves -history, architecture and food. It is not just the imposing buildings, their interiors and the magnificent statues that appeal but the famous porticoes appear to be woven into its very fabric. Bologna is truly a special place. Whisper it quietly – this city should be on everyone’s ‘places to visit’ list.